|





2 

When a ship moves forward through the water at a constant
velocity, à÷ Its forward motion is going to generate:

a) 

   , producing a resultant force in
the longitudinal direction and opposite to the advancing
direction; and
b) 
 

 on the immersed (or wetted) surface due to
the viscosity; their resultant force is also opposite to the ship¶s
moving direction÷

he 

 to the motion is called the 

 of
the ship or ³
÷
he resistance components most concerned
arise from one of the two forces; namely normal dynamic
pressures or tangential stresses on the ship surface÷
 he ship actually moves at the same time through 
,




, with widely different density÷ While the lower part
of the hull is moving through water, the upper part is moving
through air÷ Like moving in the water, the upper part of the ship
moving in the air is also subject to the same types of forces
(dynamic pressures and tangential stresses)÷

ecause à p à , the air resistance is 
 


than the water resistance, except for those aerostatic support of
hydrodynamic support crafts÷


Water resistance (submerged part of a hull)

Air resistance (upper part of hull &
superstructure)
 2



 

!


: belongs to the category of
normal dynamic pressures÷ Due to these dynamic pressures
waves are generated on the surface of water and spread away
from a ship÷ Waves possess energy÷ hus a ship making
waves means a loss of its energy÷ 

!



is important to surface ships, especially those of high speeds,
but may be negligible to submarines÷

 "




: arising due to the viscosity of water,
i÷e÷ tangential stresses÷ ecause of viscosity & velocity
gradient in the direction normal to the ship hull, there is a
mass of fluid being dragged along with a ship÷ Energy
necessary to drag the mass of fluid is the work done by the
ship against the 




÷
‰÷ r
!


: contributed from normal pressure
applied on a hull÷ Due to the viscosity of the fluid, the flow
separates from the surface of a hull and 
#
$ are
formed÷ hese eddies induce the changes in the velocity
field and thus change the normal pressures on a hull÷ he
changes in the pressure field around a ship result in the

!




4÷ %


 (mainly resulting from wind resistance)÷

÷ % 


: are caused by the appendages of a
ship, such as propellers, rudders and bilge keels÷
2&'
 

%






· he purpose of studying ³Dimensional Analysis
('%)

'% is helpful to classify and compute various types of

resistances, by examining the basic laws governing the
resistances of a body moving through a fluid÷

Although CFD has made considerable progresses, the present

practice still depends on 

 


 of the ship÷ '%










, which may deduce the resistances
of the corresponding prototype ship÷
·   

 
 




#
$

'% is based on the principle that an equation which expresses a

physical relationship must be 
 

  ÷

In other words, the  



 of all terms at both sides of an
equation must be the 
, e÷g÷

ë
 ,  [

In general, all physical units can be expressed by &  
 



, such as 
  
 or   
÷

* : if there are u dimensional variables in a

(!


physical equation, described by fundamental dimensions, they
may be grouped into u
 dimensionless variables÷
 · '
 

%





 ( , A , A  , A ‰ , , à , ,
, ,
)
or a comparison bet een geometrically similar bodies
(a ship and its model), their nondimensional ratios
A , A  , A ‰ , (ratioes) etc are the same÷ hus,

 ( p à
 
 
 )
Based on the dimensional homogeneity
( - mass,  - length,  - time)


  
p               


   ‰            
                 
 


p  ‰
    

 
          
p  ‰
     ( )

  ()
           (‰)
We have 6 parameters and ‰ eq÷s relating
them, thus
   ,
         , p    ÷

   

  
         


 

 à     
 

  

        
,
à   
       à   


 à  ,
is the dynamic viscosity
 the kinematic viscosity

   à 
, , are dimensionless coe icients÷ hey
à    


are related to the similarity la s bet een the model and prototype÷


he (total) 

 ÷  ,
à 

here the etted sur ace o  a hull has is proportional to  ;

Reynolds number, Re , related to the riction resistance;


roude Number, r , related to the ave-making resistance


uler Number, u , not signiicant to the resistance÷

à 


   
  ,  
Re, r 
 
 à    

When a model and its prototype are geometrically similar and

their two dimensionless coefficients (Ô

) are the same,
their resistance coefficients () should be the same÷

Dimensional analysis reduces the number of the related

parameters involved in model tests÷ However, it can take the
problem no further than the above conclusion÷
 2) 




·
odel tests are widely used in the design and study of large
engineering constructions, such as harbor, breakwater, bridge
constructions, and ship buildings÷

· A ship model is 





 to its prototype÷ he
size of the model is usually much smaller than that of the
ship÷

· hip model tests are employed to predict the 


, the
interaction between the hull and the propeller, seakeeping
properties of a ship, etc÷ herefore, model tests are 


 in ship design and ship research÷ Here we focus on


÷
·



 

odel resistance tests are usually carried out in a towing tank÷ A

towing tank is a long and narrow basin÷ mall towing tanks are
about -‰¶ long, -‰¶ wide, -9¶ deep÷ Large ones, e÷g÷
* +
, '


 (



  
--2 ,

 2 

  

A ship model (at a fixed displacement and a naked hull (no

appendage, 4-7¶ for small towing tank, -‰¶ for large one) is
towed at a constant velocity by a mechanically propelled towing
carriage (see website below)÷ he resistance of the model at the
constant velocity is recorded by the instruments on the carriage÷
Usually the test is carried at
 . constant velocities, and
a 

 is thus obtained÷

http:www÷dt÷navy÷milhydfactow-bashig-spe-basindex÷html
 à

A typical resistance curve in a model test

A owing Carriage and A hip
odel
A owing Carriage
Vverview of
arin ek¶s hop
odel ank ( orway)
· '

 



.
 



When a ship and its model are 


(all characteristics
& dimensions are in the same ratio) and 


similar, we
may use Eq (÷ ) to determine the resistance of a ship based on
the measured data from its model test÷ amely,

when
 !
  
e !
e  ,

     


!

 or      
(÷ )
 à à    à à !

  à à à

! à
 ! ! !à !à!
6eometrical similarity indicates the main characteristics of a
model & its prototype are in the same ratio÷

! or å , for a model and its prototype
!
having the same Fr & e, then we require
à à !
!, & ; ,
à! ! à!  ! !
if both are run in water at the similar density &
temperature,   ! ÷
ince ! ? , it is


.

. ,

 !
  and
e !
e 
÷ In order to overcome this fundamental difficulty to satisfy
the similarity laws,

/#
$

 was made
by " that the 


 and the 

!



 are
  , and the frictional-resistance
coeff÷ depends only on the eynolds #÷ he wave-making
or 

 resistance coeff÷ depends only on the Froude # ÷

     
 
  

 [ 
  
 à     

[   
Frictional esistance: [ 
  
 à  


  
 
  
Wave-making esistance: 

 à  
÷ It is also assumed that the frictional resistance coeff÷ of a ship
(or a model) is the 



 


 
 
  




 
 (or the
model)÷ herefore,  or Ô of a ship (or a model) can be
computed given the length according to the half-analytically &
half-empirically 

 
÷

‰÷ ased on  


 , we may determine the
resistance of a ship at a constant velocity given the results of
model resistance test÷ he steps are detailed below÷

a÷ At à! , the total resistance of a model, 
! , can be measured÷


!
hus 
! 
,
 à !à!

where ! is the model's wetted surface area÷

b÷ According to the nd assumption, ! , can be computed given
the length of model according to a friction coefficient formula÷
c÷ Computing the model's 

 resistance coefficient
! 
!
! ÷
à à! à
d÷ If , namely, ! , then
! à! !
 à 
 
 !      ,
 
the ship's residual resistance coefficient is computed÷
e÷ ame as in tep b,   can be computed given the ship's length÷
f÷ he total resistance coeff÷ of a ship is given by, 
    
    !    
!
 ! 
!

 !
  ÷
g÷ he total resistance of a naked ship (excluding appendages)
can be obtained,  
  à à  , at à !à! ÷ When
two geometrically similar ships are running at speeds which
conform to the Froude Law,  ! , they are said to be running

 
at  
÷ It is noticed that,   ! ÷
!  ! 

In most cases, the total resistance of a ship can be determined

accurately based on the model test results using the above method÷
However, the method is based on the 
/

  (a÷ 
&  are independent, b÷  of a ship is equal to that of a flat
plate with the same length)÷ ometimes the errors due to the
approximations may be significant÷ We will study the 


,


!


!


 in detail, for
understanding the computation using the method & its validity÷
 22"





· Laminar and urbulent Flow (review of CVE ‰ )

0


: the fluid appears to move by the sliding of
laminations of the infinitesimal thickness relative to adjacent
layers÷
. : is characterized by fluctuations in velocity
at all points of the flow field and these fluctuations with no
definite frequency÷
Whether a flow is laminar or turbulent flow depends mainly
on its eynolds #÷ For a plate flow,
when e < 6 the flow is laminar,
e > 8 the flow is turbulent,
6 < e < 8 the flow is transitional
 · "

 




he following formulas are commonly used÷
) lasius formula÷ (Laminar flow)
 à  ÷
 ÷‰  e, e  4÷   ÷ e ,  
, thus,   à ÷
  à à

) Prandtl and von Karman formula (turbulent flow)


log 
e     ,  ÷74( 
)
 , thus,   à ÷8 ÷

‰) choenherr formula ( 947 A C line, derived based on ))
÷4
log 
e   , for e  4÷ 8 ÷

4) 97 I C line formula (known as ship-model correlation line
not a friction coefficient for a flat plate, turbulent flow)
÷7
 , for e  7 ÷

log  e
 

It is noted that  computed according to the lasius formula
(laminar) and  according to turbulent flow formula, say
choenherr formulas are Î

 ÷ For a 

there would be a laminar flow over the (at least) 


which would develop into turbulent flow further afterwards÷
hen it would be


, if we either use lasius formula or
cheonherr formula to compute the frictional coeff÷ of the model÷

o overcome this problem, we have to

÷ set a 

 on the 
1 of model
÷ use turbulence 



 at the bow of a model to
stimulate an early transition from a laminar to turbulence flow,
such as a ³trip wire
at 2 station after the forward
perpendicular line÷
herefore, the 




.



. 
÷
·    

 

he formulas for computing  are applied to the flat plates with

 
÷ he rough surface (of a ship) will result in the
increase of  ÷ oughness (on the surface of a hull) may be
classified into & types÷

÷ tructural roughness: caused by /

, warviness of
shell plating on the hull÷ A newly-built ship will have
½  ÷4 (for choenherr formula)÷
÷ Corrosion
‰÷ Fouling: caused by the attachment of marine organisms such as
seaweeds, shells and barnacles÷
Corrosion & fouling occur for ships having sailed for a certain
period of time÷ hey will 
 
 of the ship÷ hip
owner will decide when the ship should go to the dock for cleaning÷
23

!



· Wave-making resistance is important to
÷ a surface ship (negligible for submarine); and à
÷ its speed is high÷ Accurately speaking, its Froude # , [


à
or in U÷÷ the speedlength ratio, is high÷

It is noticed that the speed to length ratio is a dimensional
coefficient, where à is in knots, in feet÷
A nautical milehr (knot) = ÷ 44 ms÷

is equivalent to [
÷‰

When [
÷ , 
 is negligible÷
When [
 ÷4,    6 ,
 is dominant in
 ÷
· 



!




÷ Experiments with models in towing tank; At present, model test
is still the 

 tool for prediction of wave-making
resistance÷
÷
heoretical and numerical computations (|"'): help in
interpreting model test results, reduce the range of model tests,
and guide further research÷
 ·

4

Lord Kelvin ( 887) considered a single pressure point traveling
in a straight line over the surface of the water, sending out
waves which combine to form a characteristic 
 ÷


 Waves

'
 Waves
· '

  

 




÷ A system of transverse waves: the heights of successive crests

diminish when  go afterwards w÷r÷t÷ the pressure point÷
÷ A series of divergent waves: the whole pattern is roughly
contained within two straight lines, which start from the
pressure point and make angles of 9Û 8¶ on each side of the
line of the motion÷
In deep water, (  å ),
wavelength of ÷W:

å
  à 
Wavelength of D÷W:
 
å  à cos
 ,
o

= 9 8'
·

4

5


 illustrates and explains many of the
features of 

÷


 



 
.


 5

 
.

, with one near the . and the other near the
 ÷


 




 .


!

4
 

.
#
 

 $

4
 

.
#
 

 $
·   r
÷ At  (Froude #), waves made by a ship are very small
& wave-making resistance is insignificant÷

÷ At lower Froude #, 
 
 are the primary wave
system÷ As the Froude # of a ship increases and the depth of
water decreases, 

 are more important÷

‰÷ he wavelength of ÷

 with the speed of a ship÷
hus the position of the  (or trough) w÷r÷t÷ the ship

÷
4÷If the trough of the ÷W÷ generated by the bow coincides with that
generated by the stern, then  becomes 
÷ If the crest
of ÷W generated by the bow coincides with the trough of ÷W
generated by the stern, then  becomes 
÷ his
phenomenon is called .
 

 ,
 

   


  ÷

÷ In order to reduce the

resistance, a ship designer
chooses appropriate 0

à
such that 

is at valley
instead of at humps÷
(p 49-  )