8.

0
 A group of workers and their leaders are set a task
of clearing a road through a dense jungle on a
remote island to get to the coast where an estuary
provides a perfect site for a port.
 The leaders organise the labour into efficient units
and monitor the distribution and use of capital
assets – progress is excellent. The leaders continue
to monitor and evaluate progress, making
adjustments along the way to ensure the progress is
maintained and efficiency increased wherever
possible.
 Then, one day amidst all the hustle and bustle and
activity, one person climbs up a nearby tree. The
person surveys the scene from the top of the tree.
 And shouts down to the assembled group
below…
“Wrong Way!”

(Story adapted from Stephen Covey (2004) “The Seven Habits of Highly Effective
People” Simon & Schuster).

 “Management is doing things right, leadership is

doing the right things”
(Warren Bennis and Peter Drucker)
Chapter Outline
 Definition of Leadership
 Leadership Approaches
1. Traits theory
2. Behavioral theories
 Ohio studies
 Michigan Studies
 Managerial Grid
3. Contingency Approaches
 Life cycle Theory
 Path –Goal Theory
 Power
 Leadership vs. Management
Working on the system Working in the system
Create opportunities React
Seek opportunities Control risks
Change organizational rules Enforce organizational rules
Provide a vision to believe in and Seek and then follow direction
strategic alignment
Motivate people by satisfying basic Control people by pushing them in the
human needs right direction
Inspire achievement and energize Coordinate effort
people
Provide instructions
Coach followers, create self-leaders
and empower them
 Definition:
Is the process of directing the
behavior of others toward the
accomplishment of some objective or
causing individuals to act in a certain
way or to follow a particular course.
Leadership and Vision
 Leadership involves:

 Creating a vision of the future.

 Devising strategy for achieve

that vision.

 Communicating the vision so that

everyone understands and believes
in it.
 The Significance of Leadership
 Leadership is a social influence process.

 Leadership isn’t a position, title, or

privilege, it is a responsibility and a process.
 Leadership is an observable, understandable,
learnable set of skills and practices available
to everyone, anywhere in the organization.
 Leadership is the indirect ability to influence
people by inspiring them to pursue goals for
the benefit of the organization.
LEADERSHIP APPROACH/THEORIES:

TRAITS

• OHIO STUDY
BEHAVIOUR • MICHINGAN STUDY
• MANAGERIAL GRID

• LIFE CYCLE
CONTIGENCY
• PATH-GOAL
1. THE TRAITS APPROACH
 1. The Trait Approach of Leadership
 Sees the personal characteristic of an
individual as the main determinants of how
successful that individual could be as a
leader.
- Leaders are born, not made.
 Researchers have taken two approaches:
i. Comparing the traits of those who have
emerged as leaders with the traits of those
who have not.
ii. Comparing the traits of effective leaders with
those of ineffective leaders.
Cont..The Trait Approach of Leadership
For Approach i) Leaders and Nonleaders:
 Leaders have been found to be
brighter, extroverted, self-confident
compare to non-leaders.
 However, they have largely failed to
uncover any traits that clearly and
consistently distinguish leaders from
followers.
 Cont..The Trait Approach of Leadership
For Approach ii) Effective and Ineffective Leaders
 Effective leaders have been found to be intelligence,
initiative, supervisory ability and self-assurance and this
characteristics will associate with high managerial levels
and performance.
 However, another studies found that effective
leadership does not depend on a particular set of traits,
but rather on how well the leader’s traits match with
the requirement situation.
 Trait Focus Approach
 The trait focus approach assumes that some people
are endowed with certain characteristics making them
effective leaders.
Physical characteristics (such as height and appearance)
Personality (such as self-esteem, dominance and emotional
stability)
Aptitudes (general intelligence, verbal fluency and
creativity)
Traits of Successful Leaders
 Drive
 Achievement, sense of responsibility, ambition, energy,
tenacity and initiative.
 Motivation
 Especially power.
 Honesty and integrity
 Self confidence
 Persuasive, diplomatic and socially skilled.
 Conceptual ability
 Business knowledge
2. THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH
2. The Behavior Approach of Leadership
 Behavioral approach looked at
what good leaders do. Are they
concerned with getting a task
done, or do they concentrate on
keeping their followers happy
and maintaining high morale?
The Behavior Approach of Leadership
I. The Ohio State University
 Researchers studied the effectiveness of what
they called ‘initiating structure’ (task orientation)
and consideration (employee-oriented)
leadership behavior.
 Structure behavior – establishes well-defined
procedures that the followers should adhere to in
performing their jobs.
 Consideration behavior – reflects friendship,
mutual trust, respect, and warmth in the
relationship between leader and followers
The Ohio State University
 The Behavior Approach of Leadership
II. The Michigan University Studies
After analyzing information based on interview with both leaders and
followers, the Michigan Studies pinpointed two basic types of leaders
behavior:

a) Production-Centered Behavior
 Is leader behavior that focuses primarily on how well subordinate
performing their job.
 Managers set rigid work standards, organized tasks down to the last
detail, prescribe work methods to be followed, and closely
supervised employees’ work.

b) Employee-Centered Behavior
 Is leader behavior that focuses primarily on subordinates as people.
 Managers encouraged employee participation in goal setting
and other work decisions and helped ensure high performance
by inspiring trust and respect.
 Managerial Grid

5,5

•Diagram developed by Blake and Mouton to measure a

manager’s relative concern for people and production.
 Managerial Grid
 1,1:The indifferent (previously called
impoverished) style
 Concern  People and Production
 Exertion of minimum effort to get required
work done is appropriate to sustain
organization membership.
 Managerial Grid
 9,1: The dictatorial (previously, task
management)
 Concern  people  production
 Efficiency in operation results form arranging
condition of work in such a way that human
elements interfere to a minimum degree
 Managerial Grid

 5,5: The status quo (previously, middle-of-

the-road)
 Concern = people and production
 Adequate organization performance is possible
though balancing the necessity to get out work
with maintaining morale of people at a
satisfactory level.
 Managerial Grid
 1,9 :The accommodating (previously,
country club)
 Concern  people  production
 Thoughtful attention to needs of people
for satisfying relationships lead to a
comfortable, friendly organization
atmosphere and work tempo
 Managerial Grid

 9,9: The sound (previously, team

management)
 Concern  people  production
 Work accomplishment is from committed
people, interdependence through a
‘common stake’ in organization purpose
leads to relationships of trust and respect.
3. THE CONTIGENCY APPROACH
Leadership Theories
Hersey & Blanchard’s Model

Source: Reprinted with permission from the Center for

Leadership Studies. Situational Leadership® is a registered
trademark of the Center for Leadership Studies. Escondido,
California. All rights reserved.
The Hersey and Blanchard Life-Cycle Theory
The Hersey and Blanchard Life-Cycle
Theory

 1st Phase (Telling/ Directing)

 Followers must be instructed on what, how, when
and where to do various tasks.
 The manager initiates decision-making.
• Giving considerable attention to defining roles and
goals
• Recommended for new staff, repetitive work, work
needed in a short time span
• Used when people are unable and unwilling
The Hersey and Blanchard Life-Cycle
Theory

 2nd Phase (Selling/ Coaching)

- Leader still provides a great deal of direction
but attempts to hear followers’ feelings about
decision, ideas and suggestions.
• Control over decision-making remains
with the leader.
• Most direction given by leader
encouraging people to ‘buy into’ task
• Used when people are willing but unable
 The Hersey and Blanchard Life-Cycle
Theory

 3rd Phase (Participating/Supporting)

 Employees have more ability and achievement motivation.
 Actively seeking greater responsibility.
 Leaders provide recognition and actively listen and facilitate
problem solving.
 Decision-making and problem solving shifts from leader to
follower.
 Decision making shared between leaders and followers, role of
leader to facilitate and communicate
 Used when people are able but unwilling
The Hersey and Blanchard Life-Cycle
Theory

 4th Phase (Delegating)

 Followers no longer need direction from managers.
 Leaders can reduce the amount of support and
encouragement.
 Decision making totally delegated to the follower. Leader
identifies problem but followers are responsible for carrying
out response
Used if people are able and willing
 The Behavior Approach of Leadership
 The Path-Goal Theory
 Emphasizing the leader’s role in clarifying for
subordinates how they can achieve high
performance and its associated rewards.
- Developed by Martin G. Evans & Robert J. House.
- Individual’s motivation depends on his/her expectation of
rewards and the attractiveness of the rewards.
- Leaders clarify paths through which followers can achieve
both task-related and personal goals.
- The most effective leadership style in motivating followers
depends on the types of rewards they most desire.
 Path-Goal Theory
Leadership Behaviors
 Directive leadership – leader gives instructions,
expectations, time lines, and performance standards
 Supportive Leadership- leader is friendly and approachable,
attends to the well being of subordinates, and treats everyone as
equals
 Participative Leadership- leader invites subordinates to give
ideas, share opinions and integrates their suggestions into the
decision making process
 Achievement-Oriented Leadership- leader challenges
subordinates to perform at the highest level possible. Leader
has high standards of excellence and seeks continuous
improvement.
Path-Goal Theory
 Path-Goal Theory
Subordinate Characteristics
 Need for affiliation- prefer supportive leadership
 Preferences for structure – prefer directive
leadership
 Desires of control- prefer participative leadership
 Self-perceived level of task ability- prefer
achievement orientated leadership
Summary of Leadership Theories
Theory Leadership Based On…
Trait Theory Leaders born with leadership traits

Behavioral Theory Initial structure and consideration

- Role Theory Shaped by culture, training, modeling

- Managerial Grid Concern for production and concern for people

Participative Leadership More people involved = better collaboration

- Lewin’s Style Autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire

- Likert’s Style Task oriented, relationship oriented, participative style

Contingency Theories No one best leadership style

- Fiedler’s LPC Theory Task focus v. relationship focus

- Cognitive Resource Theory Intelligence and experience make a difference

- House’s Path Goal Theory Help followers make their goals compatible with
organizational goals
Situational Leadership Similar to contingency theory

- Hersey and Blanchard Based on relationship between leader and follower

and task behavior
- Vroom & Yetton Decision quality and decision acceptance
 Power
 Ability to marshal human, information, or
material resources to get something done.
 An individual’s capacity to influence
decisions.
 Control over information.
PRO

INFORMATION
LEGITIMATE COERCIVE

Power that stems Power to

from formal authority. discipline, punish
JPJ/PDRM/JAS POSITION & withhold
Inherent in the formal rewards.
position leader holds. Lecturers-

Types of SOURCES OF
POWER
students

Power Derived from interpersonal relationship

between a leader and his follower.

PERSONAL

REFERENT REWARD

Ability to influence others Derived from control over

based on personal liking,
charisma & reputation.
Dr. Mahathir - MSC
EXPERT tangible benefits example
promotion, work schedule.
Power to influence another
Pengarah Kampus UiTM
person because of expert
knowledge and competence.
Doctor/Engineer/Lawyer.
 TYPES OF POWER
TYPES OF EXPLANATION
POWER
Positional • It is the power of an individual because of the relative
power/ position and duties of the holder of the position within an
legitimate organization.
• Legitimate power is formal authority delegated to the
holder of the position.
Coercive • Coercive power is the application of negative influences.
•It includes the ability to demote or to withhold other
rewards.
•Coercive power tends to be the most obvious but least
effective form of power as it builds resentment and
resistance from the people who experience it.
Information •Control over information.
 TYPES OF POWER
TYPES OF EXPLANATION
POWER
Referent • Is the power or ability of individuals to attract others and build loyalty.
• It’s based on the charisma and interpersonal skills of the power holder.
•A person may be admired because of specific personal trait, and this
admiration creates the opportunity for interpersonal influence.
•This is the second least obvious power, but the most effective. Advertisers
have long used the referent power of sports figures for products
endorsements, for example.
Expert • Expert power is an individual’s power deriving from the skills or
expertise of the person and the organization’s needs for those skills and
expertise.

Reward • Reward power depends on the ability of the power wielder to confer
valued material rewards, it refers to the degree to which the individual can
give others a reward of some kind such as benefits, time off, desired gifts,
promotions or increases in pay or responsibility.
•This power is obvious, but also ineffective if abused.