Any sudden shaking of the ground caused by

the passage of seismic waves through Earth’s

rocks. It occur most often along geologic faults,
narrow zones where rock masses move in
relation to one another.
 Is a series of ocean waves that send surges of
water, sometimes reaching heights of over 100
feet (30.5 meters), onto land. These walls of
water can cause widespread destruction when
they crash ashore.
Is a standing wave oscillating in body of water
Causes of Earthquakes:
• Volcanic Activities
• Folding and Faulting

• Plate Tectonics

• Human Interference with Nature

Volcanic Activities
 Volcanic explosions are certainly the most common
cause of earthquakes in the neighbourhood of active
volcanoes.
 It is caused either under the influence of the
increasing pressure of volcanic gases or the
subterranean movement of molten lava trying to
come up on the Earth’s surface.
Folding and Faulting
Fault is defined as fracture plane along which the
rocks have been displaced.
 Earthquakes are caused due to sudden movements
of rocks along faults.
 The fracture of the rock causing a tectonic
earthquake is due to elastic strains, which are greater
than the strength of the rock can withstand produce
by the relative displacement of nearby portions of the
earth’s crust.
 Faults occur in rocks of all ages and of all types.
Moreover, if a fault is located in a zone where one
plate move against another, the possibilty of damage
and destruction is great.
Plate Tectonics
according to the theory of plate tectonics, the
surface of the earth consists of 15 plates comprising the
rigid upper mantle, and the oceanic and continental
crust.
Three distinct categories of Plate Boundaries:
• Constructive plate boundaries
• Destructive plate boundaries
• Conservative plate boundaries

Constructive Plate Boundaries- represent such plates

which move in opposite directions from the mid-
oceanic ridges.
Destructive Plate Boundaries- are those where two
plates moving in opposite directions collide with each
other.
Conservative Plate Boundaries- do not collide, rather
the two plates slip past each other.

Due to the plate collision and subduction of one

plate another a lot molten lava that comes up towards
the earth’s surface is produced. This is the min cause of
the presence of active volcanoes along the Pacific
Rim.

Human Interference with nature

(Anthropogenic Factor)
Sometimes human interference with nature
causes artificial earthquakes.
 The underground testing of H-bombs produces
shockwaves through overlying rocks.
 Explosion of munitions factory
 Blasting of rocks by dynamites for the construction of
roads in mountainous regions
 Deep underground mining fro the extraction of
minerals
 Blasting for the construction of dams and reservoirs

However, such earthquakes are of very small

magnitude do not cause any damage to life and
property. All the earthquakes which are cause by
human activities are not as terrifying and disastrous
 Tectonic Earthquake
according to the theory, a tectonic earthquake
occurs when strains in rock masses have accumulated to a
point where the stressing results exceed the strength of the
rocks, and sudden fracturing results.
 Occurs when the Earth’s crust breaks due to geological
forces on rocks and adjoining plates that cause physical
and chemical changes.
 Example, in 1906, for instance, the San Andreas Fault
slipped along a plane 436 km long.
Three type of Faults the causes Earthquake:
• Normal faults- form when the hanging wall drops down.
The forces that create normal faults are pulling the sides
apart, or extensional.
• Reverse faults- form when the hanging wall moves up. The
force creating reverse faults are compressional, pushing
the side together.
• Transcurrent or strike-slip faults- have walls the move
sideways, not up or down
 Reservoir Associated
Earthquake
Of the various earthquake-causing activities,
the filling of large reservoirs is among the most
important.

Reservoir induction effects are most marked for

reservoirs exceeding 100 metres in depth and 1
cubic km in volume. The most generally accepted
explanation for earthquake occurrence in such
cases assumes that rocks near the reservoir are
already strained from regional tectonic forces to a
point where nearby faults are almost ready to slip.
Water in the reservoir adds a pressure
perturbation that trigger the faults to rupture.
The pressure effect is perhaps enhanced by the
fact that the rocks along the fault have lower
strength because increased water pressure.
These factors not withstanding, the filling of
most large reservoirs has not produced
earthquakes large enough to be hazard.
MAN MADE
The interference of man with the nature can
also become cause of earthquake.
The disturbance of crustal balance due to
heavy clubbing of water in dams can cause
earthquakes.
• Nuclear bombing can send specific type of
shockwaves throughout the surface of the earth,
which can disturb the natural alignment of
tectonic plates.
• Mining can also cause disturbance due to the
extensive removal of rocks from difference areas.
MINOR CAUSES
• Some minor cause such landslide,
avalanches, the collapse of heavy rocks, etc.
can also cause minor shockwaves.
• The gases beneath the surface of earth
contract and expand, giving rise to
movement in plates beneath the crust.
• Plutonic earthquakes occur because of
adjustment in rocks beds in the interior of
earth’s crust.
MEASURING EARTHQUAKES
• Since early in the 20th century, there have been three
methods.
• Mercalli Intensity Scale. Earthquakes are described in
terms of what nearby residents felt and the damage
that was done to nearby structures.
• Richter magnitude scale. Developed in 1935 by Charles
Richter, this scale uses a seismometer to measure the
magnitude of the largest jolt of energy released by an
earthquake.
• Moment magnitude scale. Measures the total energy
released by an earthquake. Moment magnitude is
calculated from the area of the fault that is ruptured
and the distance the ground moved along the fault.
 MAGNITUDE VS INTENSITY
 Magnitude measures the energy released
at the source of earthquake. It is determined
from measurement on seismographs.
 Intensity measures the strength of shaking
produce by earthquake at a certain location.
It is determined from effects on people,
human structures, and natural environment.
The table below shows approximately how many earthquakes occur each year in each
magnitude range and what the intensity might be at the epicenter for each magnitude
range.
Magnitude Average number per Modified Mercalli Description
year Intensity
0 – 1.9 >1 million - Micro – not felt
2.0 – 2.9 >1 million I Minor – rarely felt
3.0 – 3.9 About 100,000 II – III Minor – noticed by a
few people
4.0 – 4.9 About 10,000 IV – V Light – felt by many
people, minor damage
possible
5.0 – 5.9 About 1,000 VI – VII Moderate – felt by most
people, possible broken
plaster and chimneys

6.0 – 6.9 About 130 VII – IX Strong – damage

variable depending on
building structures and
substrate.
7.0 – 7.9 About 15 IX – X Major – extensive
damage, some
buildings destroyed
8.0 – 8.9 About 1 X – XII Great – extensive
damage over broad
areas, many buildings
destroyed.
9.0 and above <1 XI – XII Great – extensive
damage over broad
areas, many buildings
destroyed
 Refers to the geographic area surrounding the Pacific
Ocean. It covers the western shores of North America
and South America, and the shores of Australia, eastern
Asia and the islands of Pacific
 String of volcanoes and sites of seismic activity, or
earthquakes, around the edges of the Pacific Ocean
 Magnitude Location Alternative Date Time
name
1. 9.5 Bio-bio Chile Valdivia 1960-05-22 19:11
earthquake
2. 9.2 Southern Great Alaska 1964-03-28 03:36
Alaska Earthquake
3. 9.1 Off the West Coast of Sumatra-Andaman 2004-12-26 00:58
Northern Sumatra Islands Earthquake

4. 9.1 Near the East Coast Tohoku 2011-03-11 05:46

of Honshu, Japan
Earthquake
5. 9.0 Off the East Coast Kamchatka, 1952-11-04 16:58
of the Kamchatka
Peninsula, Russia Russia
6. 8.8 Offshore Bio-Bio, Maule 2010-02-27 06:34
Chile Earthquake
7. 8.8 Near the Coast Ecuador-Colombia 1906-01-31 15:36
of Ecuador Earthquake

8. 8.7 Rat Islands, Aleutian Rat Islands 1965-02-04 05:01

Islands Alaska Earhquake

9. 8.6 Eastern Xizang- Assam, Tibet 1950-08-15 14:09

India border region

10. 8.6 Northern Sumatra, 2012-04-11 08:39

Indonesia
1. Valdivia Earthquake 3. Sumatra-Andaman Islands
Location: Bio-Bio Chile Earthquake
Location: Off the West
Magnitude: 9.5
Coast of Northern Sumatra
Type: Megathrust Magnitude: 9.1
Max. Intensity: XII Type: Megathrust
2. Alaska Earthquake Max. Intensity: IX
Location: Southern 4. Tohoku Earthquake
Alaska Location: Near the East
Coast of Honshu, Japan
Magnitude: 9.2 Magnitude: 9.1
Type: Megathrust Type: Megathrust
Max. Intensity: XI Max. Intensity: IX
5. Kamchatka, Russia 7. Ecuador-Columbia
Location: Off the East Coast Earthquake
of Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia Location: Near the Coast of
Magnitude: 9.0 Ecuador
Type: Megathrust Magnitude: 8.8
Max. Intensity: - Type: Megathrust
Max. Intensity: -
6. Maule Earthquake 8. Rat Islands Earthquake
Location: Offshore Bio-Bio Location: Rat islands,
Challenge Aleutian Island Alaska
Magnitude: 8.8 Magnitude: 8.7
Type: Megathrust Type: Megathrust
Max. Intensity: VIII, IX Max. Intensity: VI
9. Assam-Tibet Earthquake
Location: Eastern Xixang-India Region
Magnitude: 8.6
Type: Strike Slip
Max. Intensity: XI
10. Indian Ocean Earthquake
Location: Northern Sumatra, Indonesia
Magnitude: 8.6
Type: Strike Slip- Intraplate
Max. Intensity: VII
Fault Lines:
 Central Philippines
Fault
 Marikina Valley
Fault/West Valley
Fault
 Western Philippine
Fault
 Eastern Philippine
Fault
 Southern of Mindanao
Fault
 5 deadliest recorded earthquakes in the
Philippines since the 1600s
Magnitude Location Date Mortality Missing Injured

1. 7.9 Moro Gulf August 16, 1976 4,791 2,288 9,928

2. 7.8 Luzon Island July 16, 1990 1,666 1,666 3,000 <

3. 7.5 Luzon Island November 30, 1645 600 < 3,000 < Unknown

4. 7.6 Mindanao March 31, 1955 400 < Unknown

5. 7.6 Casiguran, August 2, 1968 271 261

Aurora
Horizontal and Vertical Shaking
Earthquake causes shaking of the ground in all
three directions – along the two horizontal directions (X
and Y, say), and the vertical direction (Z, say) Also,
during the earthquake, the ground shakes randomly
back and forth (- and +) along each of these X, Y and Z
directions. All structures are primarily designed to carry
the gravity loads, i.e., they are designed for a force
equal to the mass M (this includes mass due to own
weight and imposed loads) times the acceleration due
to gravity g acting in the vertical downward direction (-
Z).
However, horizontal shaking along X and Y
directions (both + and – directions of each)
remains a concern. Structures designed for gravity
loads, in general, may not be able to safely sustain
the effects of
horizontal earthquake shaking. Hence, it is
necessary to ensure adequacy of the structures
against horizontal earthquake effects.
SLOPE INSTABILITY DURING EARTHQUAKE
Earthquakes are a major trigger for instability of
natural and man-made slopes. Often the instability of
slopes due to an earthquake causes more destruction
and kills more people than the actual earthquake itself.
Earthquakes have a determining and clear influence
on slope stability. This is already clear in ancient times.
The Bible's account of the destruction of Sodom
and Gomorrah may partly be attributed to an
earthquake triggered liquefaction and subsequent
landslide that swept the cities into the Death Sea (Harris
and Beardow, 1995
A recent example is the forecast of the instability of a
large part of the Canary Island “La Palma” that if it fails
would cause a destructive tsunami in the countries
bordering the Atlantic Ocean. The importance of
smaller-scale slope stability during earthquakes is
obvious for offshore structures, such as oil industry
platforms.
Natural and artificial slopes may become
equally unstable during an earthquake. The
earthquake triggers the failure, but is virtually never
the cause of the failure. Weathering, erosion and
sedimentation that reduce the strength of the sub-
surface soil or rock masses or changes the geometry
of a slope, and man-made influences, such as road
cuts or agricultural use on a slope, are normally the
cause for a failed slope during an earthquake.
Slopes
Material is constantly moving downslope in
response to gravity. Movement can be very, very slow,
barely perceptible over many years. . . . . Or,
movement can be devastatingly rapid, apparent within
minutes. Whether or not slope movement occurs
depends on slope steepness and slope stability.
Slope Instability during Earthquake
The shaking of the earth due to earthquake
can produce instability of slopes. This is very
important in earth dams. (In concrete dams the
oscillation of the water body can cause great
damage unless these forces are considered in their
design.
In some high gill places like Onty, even light
earthquakes can disturb the soil over rocks on
slopes and if very torrential downpour after the
earthquake of rain occurs then the water seeping
through the junctions between the rocks and soil
can produce very bad slope failures.
Slope Stability
When is a slope not stable? Slope stability
is based on the interplay between two types of
forces, driving forces and resisting forces.
Driving forces promote downslope movement
of material, whereas resisting forces deter
movement. So, when driving forces overcome
resisting forces, the slope is unstable and results
in mass wasting.
a.) Driving Forces
The basic concept of these two types of forces is quite
simple. You experience the interplay between driving
forces and resisting forces each time you drive down a
steep slope. The driving forces are gravity and the
acceleration of the vehicle (if you step on the
accelerator), the resisting force is the brake on the
vehicle.
main driving force in most land movements is gravity.
The main resisting force is the material's shear strength.
 Does gravity act alone? NO!! Slope angle,
climate, slope material, and water contribute to the
effect of gravity. Mass movement occurs much more
frequently on steep slopes than on shallow slopes.
Water plays a key role in producing slope failure.
In the form of rivers and wave action, water erodes the
base of slopes, removing support, which increases
driving forces. Water can also increase the driving force
by loading, i.e., adding to the total mass that is
subjected to the force of gravity.
 Chemical weathering (interaction of water with
surface rock and soil) slowly weakens slope material
(primarily rock), reducing its shear strength, therefore
reducing resisting forces.
b.) Resisting Forces
Resisting forces act oppositely of driving
forces. The resistance to downslope movement
is dependent on the shear strength of the slope
material. And shear strength is a function
of cohesion (ability of particles to attract and
hold each other together) and internal
friction (friction between grains within a
material).
Design of Masonry, Concrete and Earth Dams in the
Earthquake Areas
 It is better to avoid masonry dams made of
individual stone blocks in the areas of large
earthquakes. Earth dams, rock fill dams and also
concrete dams without joints will fare much
better under the earthquake conditions. If an
earth dam construction is planned at a site where
an earthquake can take place, the foundation
should be checked for settlement and
liquefaction due to earthquake.
Design of Masonry, Concrete and Earth Dams in the
Earthquake Areas
 It is better to avoid masonry dams made of
individual stone blocks in the areas of large
earthquakes. Earth dams, rock fill dams and also
concrete dams without joints will fare much
better under the earthquake conditions. If an
earth dam construction is planned at a site where
an earthquake can take place, the foundation
should be checked for settlement and
liquefaction due to earthquake.
Compaction
 The material of all new embankments and dams
should be compacted to a density that will cause
them to dilate rather than liquefy during earthquake
shaking. It is recommended that the compacted
density of material should exceed 95% of Standard
Proctor Maximum Dry Density (SPMDD) for rail or road
embankments and 98% SPMDD for dam
embankments. Cohesive materials used within the
dam or embankment body should be placed with
moisture content 2% to 4% higher than the optimum
moisture content. For cohesionless soils, a relative
density of 80% may be used as an alternative
indicator of the minimum compaction requirement.
Defensive Design Measures:
Defensive design features should be incorporated
in the foundation and embankment design of new
dams regardless of the method of seismic analysis.
 These features include:
 Additional dam height to accommodate the
 loss of crest elevation due to deformation, slumping,
and fault displacement.
 Crest details that will minimize erosion in the event of
overtopping.
 Wider transition and filter sections as a defense
against cracking.
 Use of rounded or sub rounded gravel and sand as
filter material.
 Adequate permeability of the filter layers.
 Near vertical chimney drain in the center portion of
the embankment.
 Zoning of the embankment to minimize Saturation of
materials.
 Wide impervious cores of plastic (non-brittle) cohesive fine-
grained soils to accommodate Deformation.
 Well-graded core and uniformly graded filter materials to
ensure self healing in the event cracking should occur.
 Stabilization of reservoir rim slopes to provide safety against
large slides into the reservoir.
 Ground improvement or removal and replacement of
foundation material to mitigate liquefaction potential
 Stabilization of slope adjacent to operating facilities to
prevent blockage from slide associated with the
earthquake.
 Flaring embankment sections at the abutment contacts.
 Installation of suitable features to prevent piping through
earthquake generated seepage cracks.