Part B1: Basics

B1.3 Water conveyance

B1.3 Water conveyance
Topics

• Inlet arrangements
– Diversion structures, settling, dealing with
flood

• Water transport
– Limitations of canals

• Getting around obstacles

– Flumes, culverts, syphons, Inverted
syphons,
B1.3 Water conveyance
Conveyance arrangements
B1.3.1 Water conveyance
Inlet arrangements: Considerations

• How much of the flow to divert

– Total flow needs weirs which are expensive
and may cause problems
– Some fraction may be cheaper

• Dealing with abnormal flow

– Drought (low flow) – lack of performance
(may not work at all)
– Flood (high flow) – things break!!!!

• Dealing with sediment

• Blocking of the inlet
B1.3.1 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes: siting
B1.3.1 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes: siting
B1.3.1 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes: siting
B1.3.1 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes

Direct Inlet Side Inlet

B1.3.1 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes:Gabions
B1.3.1 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes: Direct inlet
B1.3.1 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes: Side inlet
B1.3.1 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes: Pros and cons

Direct Side
• Better transport of silt • Easier to construct
into the headrace
• Self cleaning
• More difficult to
construct
• Needs special grill to
self clean
B1.3.1 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes: Grilles

Sloped grille for Plain grille for

direct inlet side inlet
B1.3.1 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes: Stream bed
B1.3.3 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes: Rate of inlet

over-top
weir crest

Normal water level (hr)

Headrace water level (hh)
Intake area (A)

v2
Q  ACd  2 g  hr  hh  
12
From Bernoulli hnet 
2g

Cd = 0.6-0.8
B1.3.3 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes: Rate of inlet

over-top
weir crest

23
 Q 
hovertop  
 w 
C b
B1.3.3 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes: Rate of inlet:
Weir coefficients
Shape coefficient

Broad; sharp edges 1.5

Broad; round edges 1.6

rounded 2.1

Sharp 1.9

Roof shaped 2.3

B1.3.1 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes: Spillway
B1.3.1 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes: Spillway
B1.3.1 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes: Settlement
B1.3.1 Water conveyance
Water transport: Intakes: Settlement
B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: Open channels:
Manning's equation

V = Stream velocity (m s-1)

R2 3S1 2 R = Hydraulic radius

V
n S = Slope
n = Manning roughness
B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: Hydraulic radius:
producing the “ideal” cross section
Shape “Efficiency”

Semi circular 1

Half hexagon 0.95

Vee 0.89

Half square 0.84

B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: the ideal cross section
and variable flow
1.0
0.9
0.8
Relative efficiency

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 3/4 1/2 1/4 0
Water level
half circle Half hexagon Half square Vee
B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: Shapes for highly
variable flow
B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: Soil and side slopes

Soil type Slope

Sandy loam 2
Loam 1.5
Clay loam 1
Clay 0.58
Concrete 0.58
B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: Limitations to velocity

• To high – channel erosion

• To low - silting
B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: Maximum and minimum
speeds
Maximum speeds Clear Sedimented
Fine sand 0.45 0.45
Silt loam 0.60 0.60
Fine gravel 0.75 1.00
Stiff clay 1.2 0.90
Coarse gravel 1.2 1.8
Shale, hardpan 1.8 1.5
Steel - 2.4
Timber 6.0 3.0
concrete 12.0 3.6

Minimum speeds 0.1 0.31

B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: getting it wrong…
B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: grass in channels
B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: grass in channels

Maximum speeds (m/s) Bare Medium Very

grass good
cover grass
cover
Very light silty sand 0.3 0.75 1.5
Light loose sand 0.5 0.9 1.5
Coarse sand 0.75 1.25 1.7
Sandy loam 0.75 1.5 2.0
Sandy soil 1.0 1.7 2.3
Firm clay loam 1.5 1.8 2.3
Stiff clay or stiff gravelly soil 1.5 1.8 Unlikely
to form
Course gravel 1.8 2.1
B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: High slopes: Hydraulic
jump
B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: High slopes: Hydraulic
jump: Critical depth

A = Cross sectional area (m)

2 3
Q A
 B = breadth of stream at the
g B surface (m)
B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: High slopes: Steps
B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: High slopes: Steps
B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: making channels
B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: making channels
B1.3.2 Water conveyance
Water transport: making channels
B1.3.3 Water conveyance
Obstacles: Flume
B1.3.3 Water conveyance
Obstacles: Flume
B1.3.3 Water conveyance
Obstacles: Pipe bridge
B1.3.3 Water conveyance
Obstacles: Pipe bridge
B1.3.3 Water conveyance
Obstacles: part full pipes
B1.3.3 Water conveyance
Obstacles: Culverts
B1.3.3 Water conveyance
Obstacles: Culverts
B1.3.3 Water conveyance
Obstacles: Inverted syphons
B1.3.3 Water conveyance
Obstacles: Inverted syphons
B1.3.4 Water conveyance
Comparison between closed pipes and
open channels
Open channels Closed pipes

• Susceptible to blocking • Water protected from

outside factors
• Needs care with • Constant flow rate easy
manipulating gradients to maintain
to stay within limits
• Variable gradient
permissible
• Cheap to build • Expensive to build
• Cheap to maintain • Expensive to maintain –
blockages are “hidden”
and difficult to remove
• Air locks
B1.3 Water conveyance
Summary

• Intakes should be carefully sited to avoid silting or

damage. They should also be self-cleaning
• Water conveyance structures should be designed
for both high and low flow conditions. A number of
methods are available to do this such as weirs,
spillways and sluice gates
• The height of the flow is predictable using Bernoulli
and manning formulas
• Channel cross sections should take account
limitations placed by the soil. Stepping the
channels can be used to slow the flow and avoid
hydraulic jump
• A number of methods can be used to overcome
obstacles such as flumes, pipes bridges, culverts
and inverted syphons
B2.1 Next…..Hydro power