MODULE- 1

GEOMETRY OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL, ORTHOGONAL AND OBLIQUE CUTTING, TOOL

FORCES IN ORTHOGONAL CUTTING, CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

PROFESSOR (DR.) VINAY SHARMA,

DEPARTMENT OF PRODUCTION ENGINEERING
BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, MESRA, RANCHI,
JHARKHAND- 835215
email: vinay1970@gmail.com
 GEOMETRY OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL :

SHAPING OPERATION LATHE OPERATION

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 2
 GEOMETRY OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL :

The simplest cutting operation is one in which a straight-edged tool moves with
a constant velocity in the direction perpendicular to the cutting edge of the tool.
This is known as the two- dimensional or orthogonal cutting process.
DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 3
TOOL GEOMETRY

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

 THE CUTTING TOOL GEOMETRY IS OF PRIME IMPORTANCE
BECAUSE IT DIRECTLY AFFECTS:

1. Chip control. The tool geometry defines the direction of chip flow. This direction is
important to control chip breakage and evacuation.

2. Productivity of machining. The cutting feed per revolution is considered the major
resource in increasing productivity. This feed can be significantly increased by adjusting
the tool cutting edge angle. For example, the most common use of this feature is found in
milling, where increasing the lead angle to 45° allows the feed rate to be increased 1.4-
fold. As such, a wiper insert is introduced to reduce the feed marks left on the machined
surface due to the increased feed.

3. Tool life. The geometry of the cutting tool directly affects tool life as this geometry defines
the magnitude and direction of the cutting force and its components, the sliding velocity at
the tool–chip interface, the distribution of the thermal energy released in machining, the
temperature distribution in the cutting wedge etc.

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 5
 THE CUTTING TOOL GEOMETRY IS OF PRIME IMPORTANCE
BECAUSE IT DIRECTLY AFFECTS:

4. The direction and magnitude of the cutting force and thus its components. Four
components of the cutting tool geometry, namely, the rake angle, the tool cutting edge
angle, the tool minor cutting edge angle and the inclination angle, define the magnitudes of
the orthogonal components of the cutting force.

5. Quality (surface integrity and machining residual stress) of machining. The

correlation between tool geometry and the theoretical topography of the machined surface
is common knowledge. The influence of the cutting geometry on the machining residual
stress is easily realized if one recalls that this geometry defines to a great extent the state
of stress in the deformation zone, i.e., around the tool.

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 6
 GEOMETRY OF SINGLE POINT TURNING TOOLS

The shapes of the cutting tools are analyzed either in

(i) Tool in Hand Nomenclature
(ii) Machine reference system with assumed feed directions
(iii) Tool reference system
Analysis of tool shape includes
Locating the cutting edges with respect to chosen reference system; and Stating the
orientation of face and flank surface with respect to chosen reference system.

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 7
 GEOMETRY OF SINGLE POINT TURNING TOOLS

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 8
 TOOL IN HAND NOMENCLATURE FOR DRILL BIT AND MILLING
CUTTER

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 9
 ELEMENTS OF A SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL:

1. Shank: It is the main body of the tool.

2. Face: The surface along which the chip moves is called the face of the tool.

3. Cutting Edge: The edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from the

work-piece.

4. Flank: The surface below or adjacent to cutting edge is known as flank.

5. Heel: It is intersection of the flank and base of tool.

6. Nose: It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect.

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 10
DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 11
 ORTHOGONAL VS OBLIQUE CUTTING

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 12
 ORTHOGONAL VS. OBLIQUE CUTTING

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 13
TOOL IN HAND
NOMENCLATURE

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

 TOOL IN HAND NOMENCLATURE:

8 – 14 – 6 – 8 – 8 – 19 – 1
8 – Back Rake Angle
14 – Side Rake Angle
6 – End-relief Angle
8 – Side Relief Angle
8 – End Cutting Edge Angle
19 – Side Cutting Edge Angle
1 – Nose Radius

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 15
RAKE ANGLE

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

 CONCEPT OF RAKE ANGLES (Ƴ) OF CUTTING TOOLS.

The rake angle has the following function:

 It allows the chip to flow in convenient direction
 It reduces the cutting force required to shear the metal and consequently helps
to increase the tool life and reduce the power consumption. It provides keenness
to the cutting edge.
 It improves surface finish

Wedge angle

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 17
 BACK RAKE ANGLE- TYPES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE.
POSITIVE RAKE :

 A positive back rake angle is responsible to move the chip away from the machined workpiece surface.

 The tool penetrates the workpiece easily and tends to shear the material off rather than compressing.

So the cutting efficiency is best with positive back rake angle.

 Positive rake or increased rake angle reduces compression, the forces , and the friction, yielding a

thinner ,less deformed and cooler chip

 But increased rake angle reduces the strength of the tool section and heat conduction capacity

 Some areas of cutting where positive rake may prove more effective are , when cutting tough, alloyed

materials that tend to work harden, such as certain stainless steel, when cutting soft or gummy material

or when low rigidity of work piece, tooling , machine tool, or fixture allows chatter to occur.

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 18
 BACK RAKE ANGLE- TYPES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE.

NEGATIVE RAKE:

 To provide greater strength at the cutting edge and better heat conductivity , zero or
negative rake angles employed on carbide, ceramic, polycrystalline diamond, and poly
crystalline cubic boron nitride cutting tools.

 These materials tend to be brittle but their ability to hold their superior hardness at high
temperature results in their selection for high speed and continuous machining operation.

 Negative rakes increases tool forces but it is necessary to provide added support to the
cutting edge. This is particularly important in making intermittent cuts and in absorbing the
impact during the initial engagement of the tool and work.

 Negative rakes are recommended on tool which does not possess good toughness ( low
transverse rupture strength)

 Negative rake causes high compression, tool forces and friction , resulting in highly
deformed , hot chip.

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 19
 BACK RAKE ANGLE FOR A TOOL DEPENDS ON THE
FOLLOWING FACTORS

 TYPE OF THE MATERIAL BEING CUT: A harder material like cast iron may be machined by
smaller rake angle than that required by soft material like mild steel or aluminium. Generally, for
softer workpiece, back rake angle of 25° to 30° is preferable and for harder workpiece back rake
angle of 7° to 10° is preferable.
 TYPE OF TOOL MATERIAL. Tool material like cemented carbide permits turning at high speed.
At high speeds rake angle has little influence on cutting pressure. Under such condition the rake
angle can minimum or even negative rake angle is provided to increase the tool strength.
 DEPTH OF CUT: In rough turning, high depth of cut is given to remove the maximum amount of
the material. This means that the tool has to withstand severe cutting pressure. So the rake
angle should be decreased to increase the lip angle that provides the strength of the cutting
edge.
 RIGIDITY OF TOOL HOLDER AND MACHINE: an importantly supported tool on old or worn out
machine cannot take up high cutting pressure. So while machining under above condition, the
tool used should have larger rake angle.
 Positive back rake angle is used for machining low tensile strength and non ferrous
materials. They are also used during machining of long/small diameter shafts or material
that is work hardened during machining. Negative back rake angles are used for
machining high tensile strength material, heavy feed and interrupted cuts.

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 20
 SELECTION OF RAKE ANGLE BASED ON WORK MATERIAL
AND TOOL MATERIAL

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 21
 SIDE RAKE ANGLE

Side rake angle should be positive.

The significance of side rake angle is that it is used to avoid rubbing action
between tool and workpiece.

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 22
CLEARANCE ANGLE

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

 CLEARANCE ANGLE (SHAPER MACHINE)

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 24
Clearance angle is defined as: the angle between the flank face of the tool and the tangent to
the work surface originating at the cutting edge.
All cutting tools must have clearance angle. However, an excessive angle will not increase
the efficiency of cutting and may weaken the tool.
It is affected by the shape of the work.
(a)Flat surfaces (shaping)
(b)External cylinders (turning)
(c)Internal cylinders (boring

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 25
 END-RELIEF ANGLE:

It is the angle between portion of the end

flank immediately below the end cutting edge
and a line perpendicular to base of tool.

Relief angles are provided to minimize physical

interference or rubbing contact with machined
surface and the workpiece.
• Relief angles are for the purpose of helping to
eliminate tool breakage and to increase tool life. The Side relief angle prevents
• If the relief angle is too large, the cutting tool may the side flank of the tool from
chip or break. If the angle is too small, the tool will rubbing against the work when
rub against the workpiece and generate longitudinal feed is given.
excessive heat and this will in turn, cause Larger feed will require greater
premature dulling of the cutting tool. side relief angle.
• Small relief angles are essential when machining
hard and strong materials and they should be
increased for the weaker and softer materials.

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 26
CUTTING EDGE ANGLE

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

 CUTTING EDGE ANGLE:
SIDE CUTTING EDGE ANGLE (It may vary
from 0 to 90°.)
The following are the advantages of increasing
this angle,
• It increases tool life as, for the same depth
of cut; the cutting force is distributed on a
wider surface
• It diminishes the chip thickness for the
same amount of feed and permits greater
cutting speed.
• It dissipates heat quickly for having wider END CUTTING EDGE ANGLE
cutting edge. The function of end cutting edge
angle is to prevent the trailing
• The side cutting edge angle of the tool front cutting edge of the tool from
has practically no effect on the value of rubbing against the work. A large
cutting force or power consumed for a end cutting edge angle
given depth of cut and feed. unnecessarily weakens the tool. It
• Large side cutting edge angles are varies from 8 to 15 degrees.
lightly to cause the tool to chatter.
DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 28
NOSE RADIUS

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

 NOSE RADIUS:

The nose of a tool is slightly rounded in all turning tools The function of nose radius is as
follows:
• ™
Greater nose radius clears up the feed marks caused by the previous shearing
• action and provides better surface finish.
• ™
All finish turning tool have greater nose radius than rough turning tools
• ™It increases the strength of the cutting edge, tends to minimize the wear taking place in a
sharp pointed tool with consequent increase in tool life
• ™
Accumulation heat is less than that in a pointed tool which permits higher cutting
• speeds.

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 30
 MACHINE REFERENCE
SYSTEM
ASA SYSTEM:

AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

SYSTEM)

Reference System: the orientation of face and flank surface in machine reference,
i.e. with respect to "𝑋𝑚 − 𝑌𝑚 " co-ordinate. For example in a Lathe, XX is the
spindle axis or work piece axis, YY is the tool axis and ZZ is the vertical axis
(velocity Vector).
 MACHINE REFERENCE SYSTEM:

πR = Reference plane; plane perpendicular to the velocity vector

πX = Machine longitudinal plane; plane perpendicular to πR and taken in the direction of
assumed longitudinal feed
πY = Machine Transverse plane; plane perpendicular to both πR and πX [This plane is taken in
the direction of assumed cross feed]
The axes Xm, Ym and Zm are in the direction of longitudinal feed, cross feed and cutting
velocity (vector) respectively.

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 32
 GEOMETRIC FEATURE IN ASA SYSTEM

Tool signature : Ƴy - Ƴx- αy- αx- φs- φe-r

Tool signature : 8 -14 - 6 – 6 - 6 – 15 -1/8

This system does not indicate

the behavior of tool in actual

practice.

Hence actual cutting condition

include the side cutting edge or

principle cutting edge.

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 33
 ASA SYSTEM

•RAKE ANGLES

Ƴx = side (axial)rake: angle of inclination of the rake surface from the reference
plane (πR) and measured on Machine Ref. Plane, πX.

Ƴy = back rake: angle of inclination of the rake surface from the reference plane
and measured on Machine Transverse plane, πY.

• CLEARANCE ANGLES:

αx = side relief angle: angle of inclination of the principal flank from the machined
surface and measured on πX plane.

αy = End relief angle: same as αx but measured on πY plane.

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 34
 ASA SYSTEM

• CUTTING ANGLES:

φs = side cutting edge angle: angle between the principal cutting edge (its
projection on πR) and πY and measured on πR

φe = end cutting edge angle: angle between the end cutting edge (its projection
on πR) from πX and measured on πR

• NOSE RADIUS, R (IN INCH)

r = nose radius : curvature of the tool tip. It provides strengthening of the tool nose
and better surface finish.

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 35
 TOOL REFERENCE SYSTEM

Orthogonal Rake System: (ORS): Orthogonal tool reference system in which

the third plane 𝜋𝑂 is perpendicular to both principal 𝜋𝑅 and cutting planes 𝜋𝐶 and
contain the velocity vector.
 ORTHOGONAL RAKE SYSTEM: (ORS):

𝑋𝑂 = along the line of

intersection of 𝜋𝑅 and 𝜋𝑂

𝑌𝑂 = along the line of

intersection of 𝜋𝑅 and 𝜋𝐶
𝑍𝑂 = along the velocity vector,
i.e., normal to both 𝑋𝑂 and 𝑌𝑂
axes.

𝜋𝑅 = Reference plane perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector, 𝑉ത𝐶

𝜋𝐶 = cutting plane; plane perpendicular to 𝜋𝑅 and taken along the principal cutting edge
𝜋𝑂 = Orthogonal plane; plane perpendicular to both 𝜋𝑅 and 𝜋𝐶 and the axes;

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 37
 ORTHOGONAL RAKE SYSTEM: (ORS): (TOOL SIGNATURE)

Auxiliary orthogonal clearance

system

Tool signature: 𝝀, 𝜸𝑶 , 𝜶𝑶 , 𝜶′𝑶 , 𝝋′ , 𝝋, r (mm)

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 38
 ORTHOGONAL RAKE SYSTEM: (ORS): (TOOL SIGNATURE)

Rake angles
𝜸𝑶 = orthogonal rake: angle of inclination of the rake surface from Reference plane, 𝜋𝑅 and
measured on the orthogonal plane, 𝜋𝑂
𝝀 = inclination angle; angle between 𝜋𝐶 from the direction of assumed longitudinal feed [𝜋𝑋 ]
and measured on 𝜋𝐶
• Clearance angles
𝜶𝑶 = orthogonal clearance of the principal flank: angle of inclination of the principal flank from
𝜋𝐶 and measured on 𝜋𝑂
𝜶′𝑶 = auxiliary orthogonal clearance: angle of inclination of the auxiliary flank from auxiliary
cutting plane, 𝜋𝐶 ’ and measured on auxiliary orthogonal plane, 𝜋𝑂 ’ as indicated in Figure
• Cutting angles
𝝋 = principal cutting edge angle: angle between 𝜋𝐶 and the direction of assumed longitudinal
feed or 𝜋𝑋 and measured on 𝜋𝑅
𝝋′ = auxiliary cutting angle: angle between 𝜋𝐶 ’ and 𝜋𝑋 and measured on 𝜋𝑅
• Nose radius, r (mm)
r = radius of curvature of tool tip

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 39
 TOOL REFERENCE SYSTEM

Normal Rake System: (NRS): (Oblique or inclined tool reference or ISO –

new.) in this system the third plane 𝜋𝑛 is not perpendicular to 𝜋𝑅 plane but is
perpendicular to the principal cutting edge. This third plane is called “Normal
Plane” as the plane is perpendicular to cutting edge. The normal plane 𝜋𝑛 is
inclined to the velocity vector by the amount 𝝀 by which the cutting edge is
inclined to the perpendicular direction to velocity vector.
 WHY NORMAL RAKE SYSTEM?

ASA system has limited advantage and use like convenience of inspection.

But ORS is advantageously used for analysis and research in machining and tool
performance. But ORS does not reveal the true picture of the tool geometry when the cutting
edges are inclined from the reference plane, i.e., λ≠0. Besides, sharpening or resharpening, if
necessary, of the tool by grinding in ORS requires some additional calculations for correction
of angles.

These two limitations of ORS are overcome by using NRS for description and use of tool
geometry. The basic difference between ORS and NRS is the fact that in ORS, rake and
clearance angles are visualized in the orthogonal plane, πo, whereas in NRS those angles are
visualized in another plane called Normal plane, πN. The orthogonal plane, πo is simply normal
to πR and πC irrespective of the inclination of the cutting edges, i.e., λ, but πN (and πN’ for
auxiliary cutting edge) is always normal to the cutting edge.

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 41
 NORMAL RAKE SYSTEM: (NRS)

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 42
 NORMAL RAKE SYSTEM: (TOOL SIGNATURE)

Tool signature: 𝝀, 𝜸𝒏 , 𝜶𝒏 , 𝜶′𝒏 , 𝝋′ , 𝝋, r (mm)

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 43
 NORMAL RAKE SYSTEM: (TOOL SIGNATURE)

Rake angles
𝜸𝒏 = Normal rake: angle of inclination of the rake surface from Reference plane, 𝜋𝑅 and
measured on the normal plane, 𝜋𝑁
𝝀 = inclination angle; angle between 𝜋𝐶 from the direction of assumed longitudinal feed [𝜋𝑋 ]
and measured on 𝜋𝐶
• Clearance angles
𝜶𝑵 = Normal clearance: angle of inclination of the principal flank from 𝜋𝐶 and measured on 𝜋𝑁
𝜶′𝑵 = auxiliary clearance angle: normal clearance of the auxiliary flank (measured on 𝜋𝑁 plane
normal to the auxiliary cutting edge.
• Cutting angles
𝝋 = principal cutting edge angle: angle between 𝜋𝐶 and the direction of assumed longitudinal
feed or 𝜋𝑋 and measured on 𝜋𝑅
𝝋′ = auxiliary cutting angle: angle between 𝜋𝐶 ’ and 𝜋𝑋 and measured on 𝜋𝑅
• Nose radius, r (mm)
r = radius of curvature of tool tip

DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 44
DR. VINAY SHARMA , PROFESSOR & HEAD, PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, BIT MESRA RANCHI-835215 45