PET 212E

Rock Properties
Lecture 2

by
Dr. Murat Çınar
Spring 2019
 Porosity
Single pore throat of a clean sandstone.

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Definitions
Porosity
In microscopic or macroscopic scale, an isolated void space in a solid matter is called a
“pore.”

Any solid matter that contains pores is called “porous.”

The pores and its surrounding solid walls in a porous matter constitutes a “porous
medium.”

The plural for porous medium is “porous media.”

The pores in a porous medium can be

1. in any shape or geometry;

2. connected or unconnected to each other;

3. dispersed in a regular or irregular (random) manner.

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Definitions Porosity
A porous media can be natural or artificial (man made.)

Examples for naturally occurring porous media are,

1. soil,

2. sand accumulation at a beach or a desert,

3. accumulation of particle sediments in a depositional environment,

4. porous and/or fractured rocks.

Examples for man made porous media are,

1. brick, concrete, and similar type of construction material,

2. filter of a liquid, such as water, purifying mechanism,

3. packed column in a distillation tower at a refinery,

4. polymeric membrane for segregating gases or liquids.
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 Porosity
Definitions

When the pores in a porous medium are connected to each other they form a pore
network, which can allow fluids to reside in and circulate or pass through.

A porous medium, through which fluids can pass, is called “permeable.”

Underground soil is a permeable porous medium that may contain air, water in vapor
state, and water in liquid state.

The permeable porous media that are the primary interest of petroleum engineering are
the portions of sedimentary rocks that contain water and hydrocarbons, such as crude oil
and gas.

Therefore, the total volume of a pore network constitutes the fluid storage capacity of a
porous medium.

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Definitions
Porosity
The total (bulk) volume of a porous medium consists of the volume of pores and the
volume of solid part.

Bulk (total) volume = Volume of pores + Volume of solid

Thus, the volume of pores, called “pore volume,” is only a fraction of the total (bulk)
volume of the porous medium.

The ratio of pore volume (Vp) to the bulk volume (Vb) is said “porosity.”

In petroleum engineering applications, porosity is generally expressed as a fraction of

the bulk volume and is designated by f .

Pore volume ( Vp ) Total volume ( Vt ) - Solid volume ( Vs )

Porosity ( f ) = =
Bulk volume ( Vb ) Total volume ( Vt )

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 Porosity
Definitions

For instance, if the pore volume is 10 cm3 in a porous medium with a bulk (total) volume
of 100 cm3, then the porosity as a fraction would be,

Vp 10 Vt - Vs 100 - 90
f= = = 0.1 or f= = = 0.1
Vb 100 Vt 100

Porosity may also be expressed as a percentage of bulk volume:

Vp 10
f= �100 = �100 = 10 %
Vb 100
or
Vt - Vs 100 - 90
f= �100 = �100 = 10 %
Vt 100

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 Porosity

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 Porosity
Particle size
is a textural
rock parameter

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 Porosity
Shape (Roundness and Sphericity) is a textural rock parameter

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 Porosity

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 Porosity
Ordered packing arrangements

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 Porosity
POROSITY OF GRANULAR MATERIAL – Packs of Spheres
Porosity of granular material is inter-granular porosity and is affected by the packing and
sorting of grains.

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 Porosity
A major portion of the porosity of rocks is inter-granular porosity and the rest is fissure
or fracture porosity.

fpss < fwss

Poorly sorted sand has less porosity than well
sorted sand.
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 Classifications of Porosity
Porosity may be classified according to the mode of origin.

1. Original Porosity

2. Induced Porosity

Porosity may be classified according to the mode of pore texture.

1. Primary Porosity

2. Secondary Porosity

Porosity may be classified according to the mode of pore accessibility.

1. Total Porosity

2. Effective Porosity

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 Classifications of Porosity
Original Porosity

Original porosity is developed during the deposition of the material.

Typical examples for original porosity:

intergranular porosity of sandstones;
intercrystalline or oolitic porosity of some limestones.

Induced Porosity

Induced porosity is developed after the deposition of the sediment.

Typical examples for induced porosity :

fractures in some shales and limestones;
vugs or solution cavities in some limestones.

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 Classifications of Porosity
Primary Porosity

Primary porosity is the void space fraction of rock currently exists in between the
grains or crystals of the rock matrix.

Typical examples for primary porosity:

intergranular porosity of sandstones;
intercrystalline or intragranular porosity of some limestones.

Secondary Porosity

Secondary porosity is the void space fraction of rock currently exists as surrounded
by the rock matrix.

Typical examples for secondary porosity :

fractures, fissures, vugs, solution cavities, etc in various rocks

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 Classifications of Porosity
Primary and Secondary Porosity

Granular Sandstone

Primary Porosity
(inter-granular porosity)

Induced Porosity
(fissure porosity)
(fracture porosity)

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 Classifications of Porosity
Total Porosity (f t)

Total porosity is the entire void space fraction of rock, including both the
interconnected and the isolated voids of the rock.

Effective Porosity (f e)

Effective porosity is the void space fraction of rock, including only the interconnected
voids of the rock.

Effective porosity does not include the isolated void space fraction of the rock and,
thus, determines the fluid storage capacity of the rock.

In general, total porosity is greater than effective porosity, f t > f e .

For poorly to moderately cemented intergranular materials, f t  f e .

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 Classifications of Porosity
Dead-End Pores

Some pores may contribute to the fluid storage capacity, but, not to the fluid
conductance ability of the rock. Such pores are called “dead-end pores.”

dead end

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 Classifications of Porosity
Dead-End Pores

If there are or there become loose fines in the porous medium, these very fine particles
may move (be dragged) by the flowing fluid and accumulate at some narrow pore
throats to impede and deviate flow into other flow paths. In such a case, some dead-
end pores may become flow conduits, just like the other pores permitting fluid flow.

dead end dead end

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 Porosity
Example: A clean and dry core sample weighing 425 g was 100% saturated with 1.07
specific gravity (γ) brine. The new weight is 453 g. The core sample is 12 cm in length
and 4 cm in diameter. Calculate the porosity of the rock sample.

Vb = p r 2 h = p �22 �12 = 150.8cm3

1 453 - 425
Vp =
g
( Vwet - Vdry ) =
1.07
= 26.17 cm3

Vp 26.17
f= = = 0.173 = 17.3%
Vb 150.8

ϕ = porosity, fraction
Vb = bulk volume of the reservoir rock, L3
Vp = pore volume, L3

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 Porosiy
Typical Values and Ranges of Porosity of Rocks

Quantity Quality Quantity Rocks

f  0.30 unconsolidated
0  f  0.02  negligible sands
0.02  f  0.05  very low 0.10  f  0.30 sandstones
0.05  f  0.10  low 0.02  f  0.25  limestones,
0.10  f  0.20  good dolomites

f  0.20  very good 0.0  f  0.45  claystones,

shales
f  0.0  salt, gypsum,
anhydrite,

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 REV

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 Measurement of Porosity
Methods for Measuring Porosity

1. Direct Methods

Direct measurement of porosity can be performed in laboratory on a sample of rock,

called “core.”

Direct methods involve the use of a rock sample, disturbed and removed from its
original location within the formation.

2. Indirect Methods

Indirect measurement of porosity can be performed by a logging operation in the well

(open hole – no casing).

Indirect methods involve the in situ measurement of the responses of rock to agitations
of electrical, sonic, neutron, and density.

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 Measurement of Porosity
1. Direct Methods for Measuring Porosity
Any direct measurement of porosity requires the use of a core.
A core is a sample of rock, cut out from a formation or a reservoir rock and brought
to the laboratory for the analyses.
According to the size, cores are classified as
1. full-size cores, d  2.5” (6 cm)
2. core plugs, d = 1–1.5” (2.5–3.84 cm) ; L = 2” (5–7 cm)
The methods to cut a core sample from an underground formation are,
• conventional core drilling (full-size cores)
expensive, coring unwanted zones, no selective formation retrieval
• side-wall coring (core plugs)
cheaper, no coring unwanted zones, selective formation retrieval

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 Measurement of Porosity
Full-size Core Drilling
Full-size core is cut in a pay zone using a coring bit
Core cutting at the tip of the drill string. The cut core is taken out
of the core barrel and broken to long pieces, then
placed into the core boxes.
Cut and slabbed cores in core box

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 Measurement of Porosity
Rotary Diamond-Bit Side-Wall Coring Tool
Side-Wall Coring
wellbore wellbore

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 Measurement of Porosity
Side-Wall Coring
Gun-Type Side-Wall Coring Tool

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 Measurement of Porosity
1. Direct Methods for Measuring Porosity
Direct measurement of porosity on a core sample aims to determine only two of the
three basic parameters,
1. bulk volume (Vb)
2. pore volume (PV )
3. grain volume (Vg)
The fluids (gas, oil, water) contained in the pore volume of preserved full-size cores,
obtained by conventional core drilling, are extracted by retort (distillation,) mercury
injection, etc methods in the laboratory.
Total volume of fluids indicates the pore volume of the full-size core.
PV = VT = Voil + Vwater + Vgas

After this application, the Vb of core is measured for f determination.

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 Measurement of Porosity
1. Direct Methods for Measuring Porosity – core plug cleaning

Core plugs are cleaned by removing the contained fluids by

the either one of washing and extraction methods of,
• Soxhlet washing extraction
• Dean-Stark washing extraction
• vacuum retorting
• centrifuging and washing.

Most commonly used solvents for core plug cleaning are,

1) chloroform, 2) xylene, 3) toluene, 4) carbon tetrachloride,
5) acetone, 6) hexane 

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 Measurement of Porosity
Measurement of Pore Volume, Vp Weighing and Saturation System

I. Initially, determine the bulk volume (Vb) of the dry rock sample, either one of the
methods given above.
II. Weigh the rock sample dry and get the weight of the dry rock sample (Ws) by
measuring it on a balance.
III. Then saturate the rock sampe with distilled water.
IV. Weigh the rock sample saturated with pure water.
V. Calculate the difference in mass and estimate the volume occupied by water that
would be equal to the pore volume.

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 Measurement of Porosity
Helium porosimeter:

PxV1x = Py (V1y + V2y)

= Py (V1y + V2 – Vs)
 Vs = (V1y + V2) – (Px V1x /Py)

A plot of P versus Vs is prepared. If the

measurements are correct the plot should
yield a straight line and the sample volume
falls on this line.

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 Measurement of Porosity
Example: A carbonate whole core (3 inches by 6 inches, 695 cc) is placed in cell two
of a Boyles Law device. Each of the cells has a volume of 1,000 cc. Cell one is
pressured to 50.0 psig. Cell two is evacuated. The cells are connected and the resulting
pressure is 28.1 psig. Calculate the porosity of the core.

P1 �V1 = P2 �V2

( 50 + 14.7 ) psia �1000 cm3 = ( 28.1 + 14.7 ) �V2

V2 = 1542cm3

Vsolid / matrix = 2000 - 1512 = 488cm 3

Vbulk - Vsolid / matrix 695 - 488

f= = = 0.298 = 29.8%
Vbulk 695

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 Measurement of Porosity
2. Indirect Measurement of Porosity

Indirect measurement of porosity involves the in situ measurement of rock response to

agitations by the following equipment and tools.
1. CT Scan imagers,
2. sonic logging tools,
3. neutron logging tools,
4. density logging tools.
5. Well Testing

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 Example
Use the density log to calculate
the porosity for the following
intervals assuming rmatrix = 2.68
g/cm3 and rfluid = 1.0 g/cm3.

r matrix - rbulk
f=
r matrix - r fluid

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 Densities of Rocks and Rock Minerals
Mean density values, in g/cc, for some of the typical rock forming minerals - after Olhoeft
and Johnson (1989), Wohlenberg (1982), Dortman (1976).

Mineral Density Mineral Density Mineral Density Mineral Density

Andalusite 3.145 Galena 7.598 Magnesite 3.01 Plagioclase
Anhydrate 2.963 Glauconite 2.3 Magnetite 5.2 Albite 2.61
Aragonite 2.931 Graphite 2.267 Malachite 4.031 Oligoclase 2.64
Augite 3.3 Gypsum 2.305 Marcasite 4.87 Andesine 2.67
Barite 4.48 Halite 2.163 Microline 2.56 Labradorite 2.70
Biotite 2.9 Hematite 5.275 Montmorillonite 2.608 Bytownite 2.73
Calcite 2.71 Hornblende 3.08 Muscovite 2.831 Anorthite 2.76
Chalkopyrite 4.2 Illite 2.66 Natrolite 2.245 Serpentine 2.6
Chlorite 2.8 Ilmenite 4.79 Nepheline 2.623 Siderite 3.944
Chromite 5.086 Jacobsite 4.99 Orthoclase 2.57 Sillimanite 3.241
Diaspore 3.378 Kaolinite 2.594 Polyhalite 2.78 Sphalerite 4.089
Dolomite 2.866 Kieserite 2.573 Pyrite 5.011 Talc 2.784
Epidote 3.587 Kyanite 3.675 CaAl-Pyroxene 3.36 Tremolite 2.977
Fluorite 3.179 Leucite 2.47 Quartz 2.648 Trona 2.17
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 Densities of Rocks and Rock Minerals
Mean density ranges, in g/cc, for magmatic and metamorphic rocks - after Schön, J.H.
(1976).

Rock Density Mineral Density

Amphibolite 2.79 – 3.15 Marble 2.60 – 2.80
Basalt 2.21 – 3.20 Peridotite 2.85 – 3.30
Diabase 2.60 – 2.93 Phillite 2.60 – 2.80
Diorite 2.65 – 2.91 Porphyry 2.53 – 2.79
Eclogite 3.20 – 3.40 Pyroxenite 2.89 – 3.39
Gabbro 2.83 – 3.05 Quartzite 2.60 – 2.70
Gneiss 2.50 – 2.89 Rhyolite 2.15 – 2.50
Granite 2.50 – 2.70 Syenite 2.55 – 2.70

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 Densities of Rocks and Rock Minerals
Mean density ranges, in g/cc, for sedimentary rocks - after Schön, J.H. (1976),
Schlumberger (1989), Gearhart (1978), Dortman (1976).

Granular (Clastic, Detrital) Non Clastic (Chemical, Biologic)

Rock Type Density Rock Type Density
Sandstone 2.0 – 2.8 Limestone 2.71 – 2.9
Quartzitic Sandstone  2.65 Limestone (pure calcite) 2.71
Carbonate Sandstone  2.69 Dolomite 2.87 – 2.9
Sand, gravel (dry) 1.4 – 1.8 Dolomite (pure) 2.87
Sand, gravel (saturated) 1.8 – 2.3 Dolomitic Limestone 2.72 – 2.9
Marl (limestone + clay) 2.3 – 2.7 Anhydrite 2.8 – 3.0
Shale 2.3 – 2.8 Gypsum 2.3 – 2.32
Clay 1.3 – 2.3 Halite 2.0 – 2.2

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