Ionizing & Non-ionizing

Radiation
ENGR 4410 – INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE INSTRUMENTATION

October 23, 2013

Janet M. Gutiérrez, DrPH, CHP, RRPT

Radiation Safety Program Manager
Environmental Health & Safety
713-500-5844
Janet.R.McCrary@uth.tmc.edu
Speaker Biography

 Janet M. Gutierrez is manager of the Radiation

Safety Program at The University of Texas Health
Science Center at Houston. She is a Certified
Health Physicist (CHP) and a Registered Radiation
Protection Technologist (RRPT). In August 2011,
she received a Doctorate in Public Health from the
The University of Texas at Houston School of Public
Health (UT SPH), and in 2005, she received a M.S.
in Environmental Sciences / Industrial Hygiene from
UT SPH as well. In 1998, Janet received a B.S. in
Radiological Health Engineering from Texas A&M
University in College Station, TX.
Speaker Biography

 Travis Halphen is a Safety Specialist in the

Radiation Safety Program at The University of
Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHSC-
H). He is currently seeking his MPH in
Environmental Health and Occupational Safety from
University of Texas School of Public Health (UT
SPH) and on May 2006 he received a Bachelors in
Medical Physics from Louisiana State University.
He was Assistant Radiation Safety Officer and Laser
Safety Officer at Kansas State University from 2006
to 2008 before he ended up at his current position at
UTHSC-H
Ionizing vs. Non-ionizing Radiation
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Radiation
Ionizing & Non-ionizing Radiation

 Units  Types
 Decay  BiologicalEffects
 Inverse Square Law  Regulations/Guides
 Shielding, HVL, TVL
 Instruments
 Dosimetry
 Biological Effects
 Regulations
 Practice Problems
What is Radiation?

 Radiation is energy transmitted by particles

or electromagnetic waves
 Radiation can be ionizing or non-ionizing
Basic Concepts
 Radiation: energy
 Ionizing vs. Non-Ionizing: enough energy to
eject orbital electrons
 Radioactivity: excess nuclear energy
Radioactivity

 Radioactivity is the natural property of certain

nuclides to spontaneously emit energy, in the
form of ionizing radiation, in an attempt to
become more stable.
Basic Concepts

 Radionuclide
 Nuclide
 Isotopes have the same Z and a different A;
 10C,11C, 12C, 13C, 14C

 Isobars have the same A and a different Z;


14N, 14O; 15N, 15C

 Isomers have the same A and the same Z;


99mTc, 99Tc

 Isotones have the same N and a different A;


14O,13N,12C,11B,10Be,8Li
Basic Concepts
 Types of radiation:
 Alpha: particulate,
massive
 Beta: particulate,
penetrating
 Gamma:
electromagnetic,
penetrating
 X-ray: electromagnetic,
penetrating
 Neutron: particulate, no
charge
Alpha (α)

 Needsat least 7.5 MeV energy to penetrate

nominal protective layer of skin (7 mg/cm2)
 Most α less than this energy, so can not penetrate
skin
 Range in air
 Range (cm) = 0.56E for E< 4 MeV
 Range (cm) = 1.24E-2.62 for E> 4 MeV
Beta (β)

 Need at least 70 keV energy for beta to penetrate

nominal protective layer of skin
 βave = 1/3 βmax

 Range in air
 Range is ~ 12 ft / MeV

 Bremsstrahlung for high energy beta & high Z

material
 Ex. P-32 and Lead
Gamma (γ)

 Photoelectric
 Compton Scattering
 Pair Production

 Photon
 X-ray
 Gamma ray
Neutrons (n)

 Often expressed in n / cm2sec (flux)

 Thermal neutrons = 0.025 eV
 Slow neutrons = 1 eV – 10 eV
 Fast neutrons = 1 MeV – 20 MeV
 Relativistic neutrons = > 20 MeV

 U-238 & U-235

Shielding Examples
Shielding for Multiple Types of Radiation

 High Energy Betas

 Bremstrahlung
 Neutrons
 Gammas
Units

 Activity: Curie (Ci) 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per

second
 SI: Becquerel 1 dps
 Exposure: Roentgen
 SI: C/kg
 Absorbed Dose: Rad (Roentgen Absorbed Dose)
 SI: Gray, 1Gy = 100 Rad
 Risk: Rem (Roentgen Equivalent Man), Rad x QF
 SI: Sievert, 1 Sv = 100 Rem
Quality Factors
Half-life

Half-life - the amount of

time required for 1/2 of the
original sample to decay

The half-life is constant

for each radionuclide and
varies due to the nuclear
structure.
Radioactive Decay

Is the process by which the amount of

activity of a radionuclide diminishes
with time.
Examples:
Radioactive Decay Formula

Variables Constants
A Activity at time t ln 2  0.693
A0  Original Activity e1  2.718
t  Time
 Decay Constant
T1/2 Half Life
Concepts

 Radioactive Decay: A = Aoe-λt

 A = λN
 λ = 0.693 / T1/2

2
d
 Inverse Square Law
I 2  I1 1
2
d
2

 Shielding I = IoBe-t
 Annual US Average Dose from
Background Radiation was
Total exposure Man-made sources
Medical X-Rays

Radon 55.0% 11%

Other 1%

Internal 11%
Man-Made 18% Consumer
Nuclear Products 3%
Cosmic 8% Terrestrial 6% Medicine 4%

Total US average dose equivalent = 360 mrem/year

Annual US Average Dose from
Background Radiation Now is 625 mrem

National Average Dose is US is 625 mrem,

with medical being the largest type of increase.
Ionization of Gas – Radiation Detector

A = recombination
 B = ionization
 C = proportional
 D = limited
proportional
 E = Geiger Muller
 F = continuous
discharge
Monitoring

 Instrumentation
 Gas filled
 Solid scintillator
 Liquid scintillation
Monitoring

 Dosimeters
 Film badges: beta, gamma, x-ray
 Permanent record
 Subject to fading
 Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD): beta,
gamma, x-ray
 No permanent record
 Can be used for long term use
 Pocket ion chamber: gamma, x-ray
 Immediate readout
 Shock sensitive
Biological Effects

 Radiation Effects on Cells:

 Somatic (early, delayed) &
 Genetic Dose Responses
 Linear, Linear Quadratic, Threshold
Stochastic and
Non-stochastic Effects
 Stochastic effects
 Dose increases the probability of the effect
 No threshold
 Any exposure has some chance of causing the effect
 Cancer
 Non-stochastic effects
 Dose increases the severity of the effect
 Threshold
 Effects result from collective injury of many cells
 Reddening, cataract, skin burn
Biological Effects

 Assumptions Used for Basis of Radiation

Protection Standards
 No Threshold Dose, Risk with Given Dose
Increases With Increasing Dose Received, Acute
vs. Chronic Exposures Not Considered, i.e.
Repair
Biological Effects

 Prenatal Exposures
 Law of Bergonie & Tribondeau (1906):
 Cells Tend to be Radiosensitive if They Have Three
Properties:
 A) Have a High Division Rate
 B) Have a Long Dividing Future
 C) Are of an Unspecialized Type
Most and Least Radiosensitive Cells
Low Sensitivity Mature red blood cells
Muscle cells
Ganglion cells
Mature connective tissues
High Sensitivity Gastric mucosa
Mucous membranes
Esophageal epithelium
Urinary bladder epithelium
Very High Sensitivity Primitive blood cells
Intestinal epithelium
Spermatogonia
Ovarian follicular cells
Lymphocytes
Acute Radiation Syndromes
 Occurs if specific portions of body are exposed
 Not likely unless major organs involved
 3 ARS syndromes:
 Hematopoietic (blood/bone marrow)

 100-700 rad

 Treatment: transfusions, antibiotics, bone marrow transplant

 Gastrointestinal (intestinal lining)

 500-2500 rad

 Death likely if dose >1000 rad

 Treatment: make individual comfortable

 Central Nervous System (brain)

 2000 rad or more

 Death likely within days

 Treatment: make individual comfortable

LD50 for Humans

 Dose of radiation that would result in 50%

mortality of in the exposed population within
30 days of exposure with NO medical
treatment

 LD50 for Humans is 300 to 500 rad

Risks of Radiation Exposure

 Low level (< 10,000 mrem) radiation

 Only health effect: cancer induction
 Averageoccupational dose to research and
lab medicine personnel: <10 mrem/yr
 Amount is comparable to:
 6 cigarettes/yr
 Driving 1,000 miles
 Living in a stone or brick home for 2 months
Regulations / Guidelines

 NRC
 Agreement States
 NCRP
 ICRP

 ALARA Program
Exposure Limits

 Regulations: NRC 10 CFR 20

 Note old:
 Whole body: 1.25 rem/quarter
 Skin: 7.5 rem/quarter
 Extremities 18.75 rem/quarter
 New:
 Committed Dose Equivalent (CDE)
 Dose to a particular organ:
‫ﻬ‬ Internal + External ≤ 50 rem
Exposure Limits

 Committed Effective Dose Equivalent (CEDE)

 Dose to a particular organ or organs with weighting
factor:
‫ﻬ‬ Internal + External ≤ 5 rem
 Deep Dose Equivalent (DDE)
 Dose at a depth of ≥ 1 cm:
‫ﻬ‬ Internal + External ≤ 5 rem (Eye ≤ 15 rem)
 Shallow Dose Equivalent (SDE)
 Dose to skin or extremity:
‫ﻬ‬ External ≤ 50 rem
Exposure Limits

 Total Effective Dose Equivalent (TEDE)

 Sum of dose from external and internal, including
weighting:
‫ﻬ‬ Internal + External ≤ 5 rem
 Effective Dose Equivalent
 Dose to organ or organs over one year period
 Total Organ Dose Equivalent
 Dose to organ from both internal and external:
‫ﻬ‬ Internal + External ≤ 50 rem
 Exposure to Fetus (Declared Pregnancy) .5
Rem/9 months
Other Useful Information

 6CE rule

 Efficiency = c/d, usually in percent

Tr  Tb
 Effective half life: Teff 
Tr  Tb

 Stay time = dose / dose rate

 REMEMBER UNITS!
 http://www.icrp.org
 Internal
advisory body for ionizing radiation
 ICRP Publications (examples)
 ICRP 84, Pregnancy and medical radiation
 ICRP 85, Interventional radiology
 ICRP 86, Accidents in radiotherapy
 ICRP 87, CT dose management
 ICRP 93, Digital radiology
 National Council on Radiation Protection
and Measurements
http://www.ncrponline.org
formulate and widely disseminate information, guidance and
recommendations on radiation protection and measurements which
represent the consensus of leading scientific thinking
publication of NCRP materials can make an important contribution to
the public interest.
NCRP 148 – Radiation Protection in Veterinary Medicine
NCRP 138 – Management of Terrorist Events Involving Radioactive Material*
NCRP 134 – Operational Radiation Safety Training
NCRP 120 – Dose Control at Nuclear Power Plants
NCRP 115 – Risk Estimates for Radiation Protection
Control Programs for Sources of
Radiation

Sealed Sources
Radiation-Producing Machines
Radioisotopes
Radioactive Metals
Criticality
Plutonium
Control Programs for Sources of
Radiation

Operational Factors

Employee Exposure Potential

• External Hazards
• Internal Hazards

Records
Common Radionuclides

 Sealed sources
 Cs-137, Co-60, Ir-192, Am-241, Kr-85, Sr-90,
Po-208
 Liquid radioactive material for research
 P-32, P-33, S-35, H-3, C-14
Radiation Practice Problems
Ionizing Radiation
Radiation Practice Problems

 1.Iodine-131 has a radiological half life of 8

days. If a source originally contained 25 mCi
how much remains after 18 days?
Radiation Practice Problems

 2.Two measurements are taken on an

unknown radiation source. The first was 1.3
mCi, and the second, taken 15 minutes later,
was 0.05 mCi. What is the half life of this
material?
Radiation Practice Problems

 3.What is the exposure rate from a 15 Ci

Cs-137 source at a distance of 1 foot? (Cs-
137 gamma energy 0.662 MeV) How about
10 feet?
Radiation Practice Problems

 4. How long can a worker stay 10 feet away

from a 15 Ci Cs-137 source without
exceeding an administratively established
quarterly dose limit of 1250 mrem?
Non-ionizing Radiation
What is Radiation?

 Radiation is energy transmitted by particles

or electromagnetic waves
 Radiation can be ionizing or non-ionizing
Definition

 Non-Ionizing Radiation = Radiation that does not

cause ionization

 Types of non-ionizing radiation include:

1. Ultraviolet (UV) light
2. Visible light
3. Infrared (IR) light
4. Microwaves
5. Radiowaves
Let’s Review – The Atom

 Intheir normal state, atoms are electrically

neutral (no net charge)
# protons = # electrons

Positive and negative

charges cancel

 An atom that has gained or lost electrons is

called an ion
The Ionization Process

1. An in-coming photon interacts with an

orbital electron
2. The electron is ejected from the atom, and
the atom gains a net positive charge.

Incident photon

Ejected electron
Non-Ionizing Radiation

 Non-ionizing radiation is electromagnetic in

nature:
 This means it has characteristics of both waves
and particles
 However, non-ionizing radiation behaves primarily
as a wave
Electromagnetic Spectrum

 The electromagnetic spectrum covers an entire

range of electromagnetic radiation

 Which of these are considered to be non-

ionizing?
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Non-ionizing
Types of Non-Ionizing Radiation

 Ultraviolet (UV) light

 Visible light
 Infrared (IR) light
 Microwaves
 Radiowaves
Non-Ionizing Radiation Terms
Wavelength Frequency Energy
 Terms
 Energy 10-18 m 3x1026 Hz 1.24x1012 eV
 Frequency 10-10 m 3x1018 Hz 1.24x104 eV
 Wavelength
10-6 m 3x1014 Hz 1.24 eV

102 m 3x106 Hz 1.24x10-8 eV

Ultraviolet (UV) Light

 Ultraviolet light has a wavelength on the

order of 1-100 nanometers (nm)
 This is the shortest wavelength of all non-
ionizing radiations
Ultraviolet (UV) Light

 Ultraviolet light cannot

be seen by the human
eye
 It is divided into 3
regions
 UVA (most energetic)
 UVB
 UVC (least energetic)
Sources of Ultraviolet Light

 UV light is emitted
naturally by the sun
and stars
 It is produced artificially
by electric lamps and
light bulbs
Is Ultraviolet Light Dangerous?

 All UV light can damage skin and eyes

 Over-exposure can lead to sunburn and
various kinds of cancers, including
melanomas
 It can also lead to weakening
of the immune system
Is Ultraviolet Light Dangerous?

 UV damage to fibrous tissue

is often described as
“photoaging”
 Photoaging makes people
look older because their
skin looses its tightness and
it wrinkles
UV Effects by Region

 UV-A (400-300 nm)

 Pigmentation of skin or suntan
 UV-B (320-280 nm)
 Erythemal region
 Sunburn of skin
 Absorbed by cornea of eye (welder’s flash)
 UV-C (280-220 nm)
 Bacterial or germicidal effect
Protective Measures

 Ensure that skin and

eyes are adequately
protected (sunscreen,
sunglasses, clothing)
 Never look directly at a
source
 Operate UV lamps in
light-tight conditions
Visible Light

 The wavelength of visible light ranges from

400-700 nanometers
 Visible light occupies the smallest segment of
the electromagnetic spectrum
Visible Light

 Visible light is
comprised of various
colors
 The separation of
visible light into its
different colors is
known as dispersion
Visible Light

 Eachcolor is characteristic of a different

wavelength
Black vs. White

 Technically speaking,
black and white are not
colors at all
 Black is the absence of
color
 White is the
combination of all
colors
Visible light health effects

 Retinal burns
 Color vision
 Thermal skin burns
Infrared (IR) Light

 The wavelength of infrared light ranges

from 1-100 microns
 When an object is not quite hot enough to
radiate visible light, it will emit most of its
energy in the infrared
Sources of Infrared Light

 Any object which has a

temperature above
absolute zero radiates
in the infrared
 Even objects we think
of as being very cold,
such as an ice cube,
emit infrared light
Sources of Infrared Light

 Even humans and

animals emit infrared
radiation
Visible Light vs. Infrared Light

 Some animals can “see” in the infrared

 These images give an idea of how different
the world would look if we had infrared eyes
Is Infrared Light Dangerous?

 Heating of tissues in the body is the principal

effect of infrared radiation
 Excessive infrared radiation can result in heat
stroke and other similar reactions, especially
in elderly or very young individuals
IR Effects by Region

 IR-A (0.75 – 2.5 nm)

 Penetrates skin to some extent
 Penetrate eyes to retina
 IR-B (2.5 – 5 nm)
 Almost completely absorbed by upper layers of
skin & eyes
 IR-C (5-300 nm)
 Thermal burns on skin & cornea
 Cataracts (glass blowers)
Microwave Radiation

 The wavelength of microwave radiation

ranges from about 10 microns to 1 meter
 Microwaves have very low energies and very
long wavelengths
Microwave Radiation

 Microwaveradiation has
many uses, including:
 Cellular phones
 Highway speed control
 Food preparation
Limit for Microwave Ovens

5 mW/cm2 at 5 cm from surface

 http://www.fda.gov/cdrh/radhlth/pdf/mwogdeft.pdf
Is Microwave Radiation Dangerous?

 Exposure to very high intensity microwaves

can result in heating of tissue and an increase
in body temperature (thermal effects)
 At low levels of exposure, the evidence for
production of harmful effects (non-thermal
effects) is unclear and unproven
Is Microwave Radiation Dangerous?

 Currently, exposure
limits are based on
preventing only thermal
effects
 Further research is
needed in order to learn
more about non-thermal
effects
Radiofrequency (RF) Radiation

 The wavelength of RF radiation (radiowaves)

is greater than 1 meter
Radiofrequency (RF) Radiation

 Both microwaves and

radiowaves are used in
communication
 As a result, there is
considerable overlap
between what is
identified as a
radiowave and what is
identified as a
microwave
Is RF Radiation Dangerous?

 As with infrared light and microwave

radiation, the primary health effects of RF
radiation are considered to be thermal
 RF radiation may penetrate the body and be
absorbed in deep body organs without the
skin effects, which can warn an individual of
danger
Static Magnetic Field Effects at Levels Below 0.5 mT
and Greater Than 0.5mT

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging

(NMR)
Static Magnetic Fields Introduction

 Static Magnetic Fields

 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging
 Increasingly used in Biomedical Research
 in vivo analysis
 effectively displays soft tissue contrasts
 MRI is unobstructed by bone
Safety Concerns with Static Magnetic
Fields
 Attraction of Loose
Ferromagnetic Materials
 Surgical Implants
 torqued, dislodged or rotated
 Pacemaker Interference

 Typically Seen Above 0.5 mT (5

Gauss)
SMF Exposure Limits / Guidelines
 ICNIRP
 200 mT  ACGIH
 Whole body (averaged for day)
 60 mT {2000 T}
 5000 mT
 Whole body (8hr-TWA)
 Limbs/extremities (ceiling) {Ceiling}
 40 mT  600 mT {5000 T}
 Continuous general public  Limbs (8hr-TWA)
exposure {Ceiling}
 US FDA CDRH  0.5 mT
 4000 mT  Medical electronic
 Routine Patient Ceiling devices
NMR Mapping 0.5 mT
Issues with Static
Magnetic Fields < 0.5 mT:
 Space constraints impacts all involved
 Concerns of stopping attention at levels
below 0.5 mT
 Impacts finite radiation protection programs
resources
 Facility Incompatibilities
SMF Affects Below 0.5 mT
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Examples of static magnetic field interference with commonly
used biomedical research equipment at levels  0.5 mT.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Magnetic Field Strength (mT) Effect or Limit
_________________________________________ __________________________________________
0.5 Implanted devices ceiling
0.15 - 0.5 Distortion in cathode ray tubes
0.3 Analytical balance
0.3 Unshielded video camera
0.15 Monitor interference
0.1 Image intensifier &
scintillation camera
0.001 - 0.1 Electron microscope
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Note: Earth’s magnetic field is 0.03 to 0.07 mT
SMF Problems Frequently Occurred

 Screen “jitter”
 Other electronic
interference
 Perceive Problem =
Risk
 Dynamic Situation
 Can lead to other
problems
SMF Recommendations

 Move “General Public” limit farther back

 Move equipment to lower field levels
 Solicit worker concerns
 Map field strengths to near background levels
 Routine assessments encouraged
SMF Recommendations (cont.)

 Area postings / brochures

 Educate workers about anticipated
interferences
SMF Conclusion

 Be aware of potential equipment effects

below 0.5 mT
 Equipment incompatibilities may result in
personnel management difficulties
A Quick Recap…

 5 types of non-ionizing
radiation include:
 Ultraviolet (UV) light
 Visible light
 Infrared (IR) light
 Microwaves
 Radiowaves
What is a Laser?

 A device that produces

light
 LASER stands for Light
Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of
Radiation
Laser Applications

 Consumer Products

Laser
Pointers

Laser Printers

CD Players
Laser Applications

 Medical- eye
surgery, therapy for
Carpel Tunnel
Syndrome
 Industrial- welding,
cutting
Light Basics

 Light travels in waves.

 The electromagnetic spectrum is divided
into sections based on wavelength.
What makes laser light different than
conventional light?

Laser light has several unique qualities:

1. Monochromatic
2. Directional
3. Coherent

But what do these mean?

Monochromatic Light

 Monochromatic light is Monochromatic

light consisting of one
wavelength only.

Polychromatic
Directional Light

 Directional light has

very low divergence.
 Conventional light
spreads in all Directional
directions, but laser
light remains focused.

Non-Directional
Coherent Light

 Coherent light consists

of waves that are in
phase with each other.
Lasing Material

 Laserscontain a medium which is used to

cause the monochromatic effect. There are
several states of lasing medium
 Solid State- Crystal injected “dopant”
 Semiconductor- Diode laser
 Liquid- dye laser
 Gas- C02 laser
Laser Construction

 Lasing Medium (gas, liquid, solid, semiconductor)

 Excitation Mechanism (power supply, flash lamp, laser)
 Feedback Mechanism (mirrors)
 Output coupler (semi-transparent mirror)
Laser Construction (con’t)
Laser Use
 Research
• Study of mechanisms at interfaces
• Detection of single molecules
 Medical/Dental
• Eye surgery
Laser Use (con’t)
 Commercial
• Supermarket checkout scanners
• Determining site boundaries for construction
 Industrial
• Cutting
• Welding
Laser Hazard Classification
ANSI Z136.1-2000 Standard
 Class 1 (Exempt)
• Incapable of producing
damaging radiation levels
 Class 2 (Low power)
• Eye protection is an
aversion response
• Visible (400-700nm)
• CW upper limit is 1mW
Laser Hazard Classification
ANSI Z136.1-2000 Standard (con’t)
 Class 3 (Medium Power)
• Divided into subclasses, 3a and 3b
• Hazardous under direct or specular reflection
• Non-hazardous under diffuse reflection
• Normally non fire hazard
• CW upper limit 0.5 W
Laser Hazard Classification
ANSI Z136.1-2000 Standard (con’t)
 Class 4 (High Power)
• Hazardous to eye and skin from direct
viewing/contact, specular, and diffuse
reflections
• Produce non-beam hazardous such as air
contaminants
• Fire hazard
Bio-Effects

 Primary sites of damage

 eyes
 skin

 Laser beam damage can be

 thermal (heat)
 acoustic

 photochemical
Eye Bio-Effects

 Three different ways for eye exposure

 Retina (visible and
IR-A)
 Cornea (UV-B,
UV-C, IR-C)
 Lens (UV-A)
Eye Bio-Effects (con’t)

•Visible (400-700 nm)

•Possible damage to Retina
Eye Bio-Effects (con’t)

•Near-ultraviolet (100-330 nm)

•Possible damage to Cornea
Eye Bio-Effects (con’t)

•IR (760-3000 nm)

•Possible damage to Lens
Skin Bio-Effects

 Skin Sensitivity
• Dermis (IR-A)
• Epidermis (UV-B, UV-
C)
How Often Do Accidents Occur?

Causative Agent for Accidental Exposure

Exposure
6%
16% durring
alignment
Improper eye
28% wear

Available eye
protection not
used
other
50%
General Laser Safety
 Wear appropriate protective eyewear
 Use minimum power/energy required for project
 Reduce laser output with shutters/attenuators, if possible
 Terminate laser beam with beam trap
 Use diffuse reflective screens, remote viewing systems, etc.,
during alignments, if possible
 Remove unnecessary objects from vicinity of laser
 Keep beam path away from eye level (sitting or standing)
Non-Beam Hazards

 Chemical
 Chemical used in dye lasers can be known carcinogens
or toxic also maybe difficult to dispose
 Optical
 Plasma radiation can be produced. Similar to welders
flash
 Fire
 Class 3b and 4 lasers with high power outputs can
cause fires
 Electrical
 Most common, very high incident in maintenance
Engineering Control Measures
 Beam housings
 Activation Warning System
 Shutters
 Beam Stop or Attenuator
 Remote firing controls
 Interlocks
 Administrative Control Measures
Class 3b and 4 Lasers

 Warning signs/labels
 SOPs
 Training Warning Logo
Information Label
 Optical Paths Covered

Class 2 and 3a Lasers

 PPE Control Measures

 Gloves
 Be wary of neck ties.

 Special clothing

Eyewear must be for the appropriate

laser wavelength, attenuate the beam to
safe levels.
 Emergency Procedure
 Shut down the laser system
 Provide for the safety of the personnel, I.e. first
aid, CPR, etc.
 If necessary, contact the fire department
 Inform the Radiation Safety Division
 Inform the Principal Investigator

DO NOT RESUME USE OF THE LASER SYSTEM WITHOUT

APPROVAL OF THE LASER SAFETY OFFFICER
Irradiance

E = Irradiance = W/cm2
 Ф = total radiation power W
 A = area
 a = beam diameter
1.27A
E
a  r 
 r = viewing distance 2
 Θ = beam divergence
Beam diameter

D =a+rΘ

a = beam diameter
 r = viewing distance
 Θ = beam divergence
Optical Density

 Log (incident power / transmitted power)

 OD = log (total H / TLV)