STRESS LIFE

• S – N Diagram

Stress-Life Diagram (S-N Diagram) The basis of the Stress-Life method is the Wohler
S-N diagram, shown schematically for two materials in Figure 1. The S-N diagram plots nominal
stress amplitude S versus cycles to failure N. There are numerous testing procedures to
generate the required data for a proper S-N diagram. S-N test data are usually displayed on a
log-log plot, with the actual S-N line representing the mean of the data from several tests.
• Endurance Limit
Certain materials have a fatigue limit or endurance limit which represents a stress level below
which the material does not fail and can be cycled infinitely.

Endurance limit related to hardness :

Se (ksi) ≈ 0.25 x BHN for BHN ≤ 400 if BHN ≥ 400 so Se ≈ 100 ksi
BHN ( Brinell Hardness Number)
Endurance limit related to hardness :
Se ≈ 0,5 x Su for Su ≤ 200 if Su ≥ 200 so Se ≈ 100 ksi
• The main stress Effect

• σ= σ𝑚𝑎𝑥 − σ𝑚𝑖𝑛 = stress range.

σ𝑚𝑎𝑥 − σ𝑚𝑖𝑛
• σ𝑎 = = stress amplitude.
2

σ𝑚𝑎𝑥 − σ𝑚𝑖𝑛
• σ𝑚 = = mean stress.
2

σ𝑚𝑖𝑛
• R = = stress ratio.
σ𝑚𝑎𝑥

σ𝑚𝑖𝑛
• A = = stress ratio.
σ𝑚𝑎𝑥
 MODIFYING FACTOR

R.R Moore: The endurance ilimit need for design situation, Se, must take into account
difference in size, surface and so on

Variables investigated include:

1. Size
2. Type of loading
3. Surfacefinish
4. Surface treatments
5. Temperature
6. environment

The Result of these test have been quantified as ,modification factors which are applied
to the baseline S-N data.
Se = S’e Csize Cload Csurf.in
 SIZE EFFECTS

• Fatigue is controlled by the weakest link of the material, with the probability of a
weak link increasing with material volume.
• This phenomena is evident in the fatigue test results of e material using specimens of
varying diameters (see Table 1.1)
• There are many empirical fits to the size effect data. A fairly conservative on is, in English units,

• Where d is the diameter of the component. Some other points to consider when dealing with the
size effect are:
1. The effect is seen mainly at very long lives
2. The effect is small in a diameters up to 2.0 in. even in bending or torsion
3. Due to the processing problems inherent in large components, there is a greater chance of
having residual stresses and various metallurgical variables, which may adversely affect fatigue
strength
 LOADING EFFECTS

• The ratio of endurance limits for a material using axial and rotating bending
test ranges from 0.6 to 0.9
• These test data may include some error due to eccentricity in axial loading
• A conservative estimate is
Se(axial) ≈ 0.70Se(bending)
• The ratio of endurance limits using torsion and rotating bending tests ranges
from 0.5 to 0.6

𝜏e(torsion) ≈ 0.70Se(bending)
 SURFACE FINISH

• The scratches, pits, and machining marks on the surface of a material add
stress concentration to the ones already present due to component geometry.
• Uniform fine-grained materials more adversely affected by a rough surface
finish than a coarse-grained material such as cast iron.
 SURFACE FINISH

• The correction factor for surface finish is sometimes presented on graphs

 SURFACE FINISH EFFECT

• The condition of the surface is more important for higher strength steels.
• The residual surface stress caused by a machining operation can be important.
• At shorter lives, where craack propagation dominates, the condition of surface
finish has less effect on the fatigue life.
• Localized surface irregularities such as stamping marks can serve as very
effective stress concentrations and should not be ignored.
 MODIFYING FACTORS

• Surface Treatment
Since fatigue always initiate at free surface, any surface
treatment can have a significant effect on fatigue life. The effect of
surface roughness from various forming was discussed in
preceding section the. surface treatment can be categorize :
• Plating
• Thermal
• Mechanical
 SURFACE TREATMENT

The important points

• Since fatigue is a surface phenomenon, the residual strees at the surface of the
material is crtical.
• Comporessive residual stresses are benefical, and tensile stresses are
determental to fatigue life.
• Residual stress are not always permanent, and various factors, such as
temperatures and overloads, may cause stress realxtion
 SURFACE TREATMENT
Plating

Reduction in endrance limits chrome and nickel of steels graph

 SURFACE TREATMENT
• Plating
To the alleviate resdiual tensile stress
• Nitride the part before plating
• Shot peen the part befor or after plating
• Bake or anneal the part after
 SURFACE TREATMENT

• Thermal
Diffusion processes such as carburizing and nitriding are very benefical for fatigue strength.

Surface decarburizing created by hot rolling and forging

 SURFACE TREATMENT
• Mechanical
There are several methods used cold work the surface to cold work the surface of a component to produce
residual compressive stress.

1. Cold Rolling 2. Short Peening

 SURFACE TREATMENT

Conclusion
• Cold rolling and shot peening have their greatest effect at long lives.
• Certain situation can cause the residual stresses to fade out or relax
• Steels with yield strength below 80 ksi are seldom cold rolled and shot
peened.
• A surface residual compressive stress has the greatest effect on fatigue
life when it is applied to an area of the component where there is a
stress gradient, primarily around notches
• It is possible to overpeen a surface. There is usually an optimum level for
peening of a component and more peening will actually begin to
decrease fatigue strength.
 TEMPERATURE

• At low temperarure the endurance limit of steel increase and many

materials experience a significant reduction in fracture toughness
• At high temperature the endurance limit forsteel disappears due the
mobilizing or dislocation and high temperature can cause annealing ,wich
may remove residual compressive stress
ENVIRONMENT

• When fatigue loading takes place in a

corrosive environment it would be
predicted by considering fatigue and
corrosion separately.
• The interaction between fatigue and
corrosion called corrosion-fatigue.
• The basic mechanism: it’s attacks the surface
of metal and produces an oxide film.
• Usually, this oxide film would serve as a
protective layer and prevent further
corrosion of the metal.
ENVIRONMENT

The Problem
• Corrosion-fatigue eliminates the endurance of
many kind of steel.
• Involves unique failure mechanisms which are very
complex.
• Corrosion-fatigue causes localized cracking in
the surface of the metal
• Corrosion-fatigue causes localized pitting in the
surface of the metal
• Loading frequency is a very critical variable.
• Spray is much worse than fully immersed.
• It’s takes large number of variable involved in
testing.
ENVIRONMENT

The Solution
• Surface treatment :
• Alloying elements in the steel.
• Nickel plate
• Cadnium coat
• Chrome
• Zinc
• Nutriding
• Shot peening
• Cold rolling
• We should know :
• Chemical makeup of the water
• Temperature
• Degree of aeration
• Flow velocity
• Salt content
 CONCLUSION

• A “safe stress” below which fatigue will not occur.

• Only plain carbon and low-alloy steels exhibit this property.
• It may disappear due to high temperatures, corrosive environment, and periodic
overloads

• The following factors will reduce the value of endurance limit:

• Tensile mean stress.
• Large section size.
• Rough surface finish.
• Chrome and nickel plating. (in air)
• Decarburization.
• Severe grinding.

• The following factors will increase the value of endurance limit:

• Nitriding.
• Flame and induction hardening
• Carburization
• Shot peening
• Cold rolling
 IMPORTANT EQUATIONS

• Endurance limit related to hardness

• 𝑆𝑒 (ksi) = 0.25 x BHN for BHN ≤ 400
If BHN > 400, 𝑆𝑒 ≈ 100 ksi
Where BHN is the Brinell hardness number
• Endurance limit related to ultimate stength
• 𝑆𝑒 = 0.5 X 𝑆𝑢 for 𝑆𝑢 ≤ 200 ksi
• If 𝑆𝑢 > 200 ksi, 𝑆𝑒 ≈ 100 ksi
 IMPORTANT EQUATIONS

• Alternating stress relationships.

R and A values corresponding to common loading situation.
• σ= σ𝑚𝑎𝑥 − σ𝑚𝑖𝑛 = stress range. Fully reversed : R = -1 A = ∞.
Zero to maximum : R=0 A = 1.
σ𝑚𝑎𝑥 − σ𝑚𝑖𝑛 Zero to minimum : R=∞ A = -1.
• σ𝑎 = = stress amplitude.
2
Mean stress correction relationships :
σ𝑎 σ𝑚
σ𝑚𝑎𝑥 − σ𝑚𝑖𝑛 Sodeberg (USA, 1930): + =1
• σ𝑚 = = mean stress. 𝑆
𝑒 𝑆 𝑦
2 σ𝑎 σ𝑚
Goodman (England, 1899): + =1
𝑆𝑒 𝑆𝑦
σ𝑎 σ
• R =
σ𝑚𝑖𝑛
= stress ratio.
Gerber (German, 1874): + ( 𝑆𝑚 )2 = 1
𝑆𝑒 𝑦
σ𝑚𝑎𝑥
σ𝑎 σ𝑚
Morrow (USA, 1960): + =1
𝑆𝑒 σ𝑓
σ𝑚𝑖𝑛 Relationship between 𝑆𝑒 under various loading
• A = = stress ratio.
σ𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑒 (Axial) ≈ 0.70 𝑆𝑒 (Bending)
𝜏𝑒 (Torsion) ≈ 0.577 𝑆𝑒 (Bending)
 EXERCISE

• Several barge of high strenght steel are to be used as leaf springs. These springs will be subjected to a zero to
maximum (R=0). Three points flexural loading. The bars are 1.50 in wide and 0.192 in. Thick . Half of the barge are in
the “as heat treated” condition, well the other half have been shot-peened. Determine the zero to maximum surface
stress that will allow the barge to have an infinite life. The neccessary data for the two sets of barge are given below,
use the Goodman relation for this calculation.

Known ;
• As heat treated
Hardness = 48 Rockwell C ( ≈ 465 BHN)
Residual surface stress = 0 ksi
Surface roughness = 24 µ in
• Shot-Peened
Hardness = 49 Rockwell C (≈ 465 BHN)
Residual surface stress = -80 ksi
Surface roughness = 185 µ in
 ANSWER

• S’𝑒 didapat dengan menggunakan rumus 1.1 BHN> 400

• S’𝑒 ≈ 100 ksi
Berdasarkan referensi 5 dapat ditentukan diameter ekivalen (deq )
0.0766𝑑2 eq = 0.05bh
Dimana b adalah lebar dan h adalah ketebalan.
0.0766𝑑2 eq = 0.05(0.192 in.)(1.5 in.)
deq = 0.43 in.
• Dengan menggunakan persamaan 1.13 (since 𝛼𝑒𝑞 > 0. 3 in ) yield
• 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 0.869(0.43)−0.097
= 0.94
• Ultimate Strength akibat modiffikasi surface finish dapat diketahui dengan menggunakan formulasi hubungan hardness
dan ultimate strength.
• Su = 0.5 (BHN)
= 0.5 x (465)
= 232 ksi
 ANSWER

• Dari gambar 1.14 dapat menentukan Surface raughnes modifikasi dari Su = 232 ksi dan AA = 24 µ in adalah 0.75
• Menentukan endurance limit 𝑆𝑒 dengan persamaan (1.12)
𝑆𝑒 = S’𝑒 x modification factor
= 100 x 0.94 x 1 x 0.75
= 70.5 ksi
• Selanjutnya adalah menentukan Allowable stress dengan persamaan Goodman
σ𝑎 σ𝑚
+ =1
𝑆𝑒 𝑆𝑦
σ𝑎 σ
+ 𝑚 =1
70.5 232

𝛼 = 𝛼𝑎 = 𝛼𝑚 = 54 ksi
𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝛼𝑎 + 𝛼𝑚 = 108 ksi
 ANSWER

• Modification factor untuk surface finish memerlukan ultimate strength.

Su = 0.5 (BHN)
= 0.5 x (465)
= 232 ksi
• Dari gambar 1.14 Surface raughnes modifikasi dari Su = 238 ksi dan AA = 24 µ in adalah 0.58
𝑆𝑒 = S’𝑒 x modification factor
= 100 x 0.94 x 1 x 0.58
= 54.5 ksi
• Selanjutnya adalah menentukan Allowable stress dengan persamaan Goodman
σ𝑎 σ𝑚
+ =1
𝑆𝑒 𝑆𝑦
σ𝑎 σ
+ 𝑚 =1
54.5 238

𝛼 = 𝛼𝑎 = 𝛼𝑚 = 59.3 ksi
𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝛼𝑎 + 𝛼𝑚 = 118.6 ksi
MIND MAPPING
THANK YOU !!!!