Introduction to Waves in

Structures

Mike Brennan
UNESP, Ilha Solteira
São Paulo
Brasil
 Waves in Structures

 Characteristics of wave motion

 Structural waves
– String
– Rod
– Beam
 Phase speed, group velocity
 Low and high frequency behaviour
 Wave transmission and impedance
 Piezoelectric actuation and sensing
Wave Motion
 Wave Motion
Wave motion Wave motion

Particle motion Particle motion

 Harmonic Wave Motion
w  x , t   A sin t  kx  or w  x , t   A cos t  kx 
 Harmonic Wave Motion
w  x , t   A sin t  kx  or w  x , t   A cos t  kx 

Fix position Fix time

 Harmonic Wave Motion
w  x , t   A sin t  kx 

w  x , t   A Im e  j t kx 

w  x , t   Ae j t
e  jkx

w x   A e  jkx

w  x   A e jkx
The Wavenumber (propagating waves)

time distance

T 
2 2 
 k 
T  c
Temporal frequency Spatial frequency
(wavenumber)

 jkx
k is the phase change per unit distance Ae
 Temporal Phase
A

w (t )
t
j t
x  Ae
j ( t T )
x  Ae
T

Green curve lags the blue curve by ¼ of a cycle
 Spatial Phase

A
w(x)

x
w  Ae  jkx
 j ( kx P )
w  Ae
P
k
Green curve lags the blue curve by ¼ of a wavelength
Superposition of Waves
 Interference of Waves
Wave motion A sin t  kx 
Wave motion
A sin t  kx   

w  x ,t 
Wave motion

w  x , t   A sin t  kx   A sin t  kx   

 
 w  x , t   2A cos   sin t  kx 
2
 Standing Waves
Wave motion
A sin t  kx 

A sin t  kx 
Wave motion

Standing wave
w  x ,t 

w  x , t   A sin t  kx   A sin t  kx 

 w  x , t   2A sin t  cos  kx 

 Beating
Wave motion A sin 1t  k 1x 
Wave motion A sin 2t  k 2 x 

Wave motion w  x ,t 

w  x , t   A sin 1t  k 1x   A sin 2t  k 2 x 

  1  2   k 1  k 2     1  2   k 1  k 2  
w  x , t   2A cos   t   x  sin   t   x 
 2   2    2   2  
Waves in solids
Waves motion in a string
 Wave motion in a string
w T
y
y dx
x
dy String

y  dx segment

x x  dx

df y  T sin x dx  T sin x

 Wave motion in a string
Applying the Taylor’s series expansion
 f 
f  x  dx   f  x     dx  .....
 x  x
gives
  T sin  
df y  T sin x  dx   T sin x
 x 

If  is small, then sin    w x , then

 2w
df y  T dx Stiffness force
x 2
 Wave motion in a string
The inertia force in the y direction is given by

 2w
df y  L dx 2
t
where L is the mass per unit length

Applying Newton`s second law gives the wave equation

 2w 1  2w
 2 0
x 2
c t 2

T
where c  is the phase speed
L
 Wave motion in a string
T
c  is a constant - the wave is non-dispersive
L
Wave speed c

speed of envelope = phase speed

Free harmonic wave motion in a string
Start with the wave equation
w2
1 w 2
 2 0
x 2
c t 2

Assume time harmonic motion, gives

d 2w 
 k 2
w 0 where k 
dx 2 c
This has a solution
w( x )  Ae jkx  Be  jkx
 Wave motion in a string - impedance
y
f y t  T
x

w j t kx 
w  Ae
j t kx  w   jkAe
x
w j t kx 
boundary condition w   j  Ae
t
f y t   T sin t   Tw   0, t 

f y t 
Z   L c which is real and hence damping-like
w  0, t 
Wave motion in a rod
 Wave motion in a rod
u
f bar element
f f  df of area S and
x density ρ
x x  dx
f u
E ……………………..(1)
S x

Applying Newton`s second law gives

 f   2u ……(2)
 f  x dx   f  S dx 2
  t
 Wave motion in a rod
Now from (1)

f  2u
ES
x x 2
which combines with (2) to give the wave equation

 2u 1  2u
 2 2 0
x 2
c t

E
where c  is the phase speed ( constant with frequency)

 Wave motion in a rod
Second order partial differential equation as
with the string

 2u 1  2u
 2 2 0
x 2
c t
Results in two propagating waves
u( x )  Ae jkx
 Be  jkx
 Wave motion in a rod - impedance
u
rod area S
f  and density ρ

j t kx  j t kx 

u  Ae u    jkAe
j t kx 
f t   E S u   0, t  u  j  Ae

f t 
Z   S E  which is real and hence damping-like
u  0, t 
 In-Plane Wave motion

E
rod c 


E   Poisson's ratio
c 
 
plate
 1 2

E 1   
3D solid c 
 1   1  2 
Shear Waves
 Shear Waves
The wave equation is given by

 2w 1  2w
 2 0
x 2
c t 2
where

G Shear modulus
c 
 E  2 1    G

  Poisson's ratio
E  Young's modulus
G  shear modulus

Note that torsional waves are also shear waves

Wave motion in a beam
 Wave motion in a beam
Beam segment of
y w length dx cross-
sectional area S

M M  dM
V V  dV

x
Summing forces

 V  w
2
V  V  dx   S dx 2 ……(1)
 x  t
 Wave motion in a beam
Summing moments about the any point on the right hand
face

 M 
 M  x dx   M Vdx  0 ……(2)
 
From (1) and (2) Bending stiffness

V  2w M  2w
 S 0 V  and M EI
x t 2
x x 2
Combining these equations gives the wave equation

w
4
w
2
EI  S 0
x 4
t 2
 Wave speed in a beam
• Note that the wave equation is fourth order rather than
second order.
• What is the phase speed? Is it dependent on frequency?
• First consider the equation for a single-degree-of-freedom
mass-spring-damper system
d 2u
 n
2
u 0 (Ordinary differential equation - time)
dt 2

• Now consider the wave equation for a rod

 2u 1  2u
 2 2 0
(Partial differential equation -

x c t
2 space and time)
 Wave speed in a beam
• Assume harmonic motion the wave equation becomes

d u
2
k u  0
2
(Ordinary differential equation - space)
dx 2


where k 
c
• Now consider the wave equation for a beam

 4w S  2w (4th order Partial differential equation -

 0
x E I t
4 2 space and time)
 Wave speed in a beam
 Assume harmonic motion the wave equation becomes

d w4
k w  0
4
(Ordinary differential equation - space)
dx 4

1 1
  S  4 1
 EI  4 1
where k     2 So c    2
c  EI   S 

• Note that the wave speed is dependent on frequency

- it is dispersive
 Group velocity
Wave motion A sin 1t  k 1x 
Wave motion A sin 2t  k 2 x 

cg
W  x ,t 
Carrier Velocity

  1  2   k 1  k 2     1  2   k 1  k 2  
W  x , t   2A cos   t   x  sin   t   x 
 2   2    2   2  

1  2  d
cg   cg 
k 1  k 2 k
In the limit
dk
Group velocity – flexural waves
• The wavenumber is given by
1
 S  21 4
k   
 EI 
1
 EI  2 2
   k
 S 
1
d  EI  2
  2  k  2c
dk  S 
• The group velocity is twice the phase velocity
 Wave motion
Non Dispersive
Shear

Longitudinal

Dispersive

Bending
Wave characteristics
Wave characteristics
Wave characteristics
 Bending Waves – motion in a beam
Start with the wave equation
w w
4 2
EI  S 0
x 4
t 2

Assume time harmonic motion, gives

d w 4

 k 4
w 0 where k 
dx 4 c
This has a solution
w( x )  A1e kx
 A2e  kx
 A3e jkx
 A4e  jkx

Nearfield waves
 Wave motion in a beam - impedance
y
x


Beam of area S
and density ρ
f t 
w  A2e j t
e  kx
 A4e j t
e  jkx
0  E Iw   0, t 

f t  ( E I )1/4(  A )3/4 1/2 f t   E Iw   0, t 

Z    ( 1 j )
w  0, t  2
which has a real pa rt - damping-like
and a positive imaginary part - mass-like
Bending Waves in a plate
 Bending Waves in a plate
• Bending wave behaviour similar to the beam but
in two dimensions
• The equation of motion is
 2
w
D  w  h 2  0
4

t
4
 4
 4
Eh 3
where    2 2 and D 
x 4
x y y 4

12 1   2 
Assume time harmonic motion, gives

 w k w  0
4 4 where k 
c
 Bending Wavenumber in a plate
• The bending number for a plate is given by
1

k 

 12  1   2   4


1
2
 Eh2 
 

• The bending number for a rectangular beam is

given by
1
1
 12   4
k  2  2

Eh 
 Bending Waves – frequency limits
• Bending wave behaviour stems from the Euler-
Bernoulli beam equation

• Neglects rotary inertia of the beam

• Assumes infinite shear stiffness

• Assumptions are ok for low frequencies, when

  10  depth of the beam

 Material Properties

Material Young’s Density Poisson’s Loss factor, η

modulus ρ (kg m-3) ratio, ν (damping)
E (N m-2)
Mild Steel 2e11 7.8e3 0.28 0.0001 – 0.0006
Aluminium Alloy 7.1e10 2.7e3 0.33 0.0001 – 0.0006
Brass 10e10 8.5e3 0.36 < 0.001
Copper 12.5e10 8.9e3 0.35 0.02
Glass 6e10 2.4e3 0.24 0.0006 – 0.002
Cork 1.2 – 2.4e3 0.13 – 0.17
Rubber 1e6 - 1e9 ≈ 1e3 0.4 – 0.5 ≈ 0.1
Plywood 5.4e9 6e2 0.01
Perspex 5.6e9 1.2e3 0.4 0.03
Light Concrete 3.8e9 1.3e3 0.015
Brick 1.6e10 2e3 0.015
 Wavelength for 1 mm Aluminium
Euler-Bernoulli beam
3
10
Wavelength (mm)

2
10

1
10 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10

Frequency (Hz)
 Timoshenko beam
Beam segment of
y w length dx cross-
sectional area S

M I M  dM
V V  dV

x
Equation of motion
 4w  E   4w  2w  2I  4w
EI  I  G  1 2 2  S  0
x 4
  x t t 2
G t 4
 Timoshenko beam
Assuming time harmonic motion, the equation of motion
becomes

d 4w  k S2  d 2
w  k k 
2 2
  kL 
2
  kB 
4 S L
w  0
dx   
   x  
4 2
 S - s hear
L - Longitudinal
which leads to B - Bending

2
1  kS  1  kS 
2 2
k  
2
 kL   kB  
2

4

 kL 
2

2   4   

As   0, then k  k B As   , then k  k S and k  k L

 Wave Speed
Aluminium beam, 14 mm wide, 2 mm thick
4
10
Longitudinal wave
Wave speed (m/s)

Shear wave
3
10

Bending wave
300 kHz
2
10 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10

Frequency (Hz)
 Wavenumbers
2
1  kS  1  kS 
2 2
k  
2
 kL   kB  
2

4

 kL 
2

2   4   

Shear Longitudinal Bending

  
kS  kL  kB 
cS cL cB

1 1 1
G  2 E  2  E I  21
4
cS    cL    cB    
   A 
 Parameters

E  2 1    G
  Poisson's ratio
E  Young's modulus
G  shear modulus
  Timoshenko's shear coefficient
  density
A  cross-sectional area
I  second moment of area
 Wavelength
Aluminium beam, 14 mm wide, 2 mm thick
3
10
c

Wave length (mm)

2 f
10
Bending wave

1
10 Longitudinal wave

0
10

Shear wave
-1
10 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10

Frequency (Hz)
 Wave motion in beams – summary
At low frequencies

• Torsional waves – non-dispersive waves that propagate

at the shear wave speed
• Longitudinal waves – non-dispersive waves that propagate
at the compressional wave speed
• Bending waves – nearfield waves (do not propagate) and
flexural waves that propagate at the bending wave speed

At high frequencies
• Torsional waves, Longitudinal waves
• Flexural waves that propagate at
• (a) compressional wave speed
• (b) shear wave speed)
 Reflection and
Transmission of Waves

Hard boundary

Note the phase differences

Soft boundary
 Reflection and
Transmission of Waves
1 2

High speed to low speed

Ar Z 1 Z 2  1 At 2
 
A Z1 Z 2 1 A Z 2 Z1 1

Low speed to high speed

 Surface wave in a Solid

Rayleigh wave Water wave

 Summary
 Characteristics of wave motion
 Structural waves
– String
– Rod
– Beam
 Phase speed, group velocity
 Low and high frequency behaviour
 Wave transmission and impedance
Piezoelectric Actuation
and Sensing
Actuation
 Generating Waves
actuators driven out-of-phase – bending vibration induced

PZT element

beam
PZT element

actuators driven in-phase – longitudinal vibration induced

PZT element

beam
PZT element
 Generating Waves
actuators driven out-of-phase – bending vibration induced

PZT element

beam
PZT element
M M

M

d 2Eb 1  dˆ  

6  12dˆ  8dˆ 2
dˆ

dp V
ˆ
d Eb   d31
d   dp
E p bp
Ratio of Free strain
Ratio of
thicknesses
stiffnesses
 Generating Waves
actuators driven in-phase – longitudinal vibration induced

PZT element

F beam F
PZT element

2dEb
F 

6
dˆ

ˆ dp Eb V
d     d31
d E p bp dp
Ratio of Ratio of Free strain
thicknesses stiffnesses
 Force and Moment Generation by
PZT Elements
0.18

0.16 Force
0.14

0.12

0.1
Moment
0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
thickness of PZT
thickness of beam
 Generating Waves
Single actuator – bending and Longitudinal vibration induced
1 1

A3 A18.0 A2
0.8
A4
6.0 0.6

4.0 0.4

2.0 0.2

0 0

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1-
PZT element -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

beam d

Al l Ar

 A1   1 e  kB l   Fd 
A   kB l   
 2 1  1 e   2   Al  j 1 e  jkLl  F 
      jkL l   
A
 3 4EIk 2
B
 1 e  jkB l   Fd   Ar  2EAkL 1 e   F 
 A4   jkB l   
 1 e  2 
 Bending Waves
PZT element

beam

-7
M M
10
Lateral Displacement (m)

Length of PZT is a
multiple of a bending
-8
10 wavelength

-9
10

-10
10 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
 Longitudinal Waves
PZT element

F beam F
-8
10
Lateral Displacement (m)

Length of PZT is a multiple

of a longitudinal wavelength

-9
10

-10
10 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
 Power Generated by PZT Actuator
(Example 2 mm thick beam 8 mm long PZT)

50 kHz 400 kHz

-3
x 10
3
Bending
2
d 
2.5  
PB  2  1  cos k l
2
  B 
2 F 4EIk
Power (W)

1.5

1 Longitudinal
PL 
0.5 2
 1  cos kL l 
F 2EAkL

0 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
Sensing
Piezoelectric Elements as Strain Sensors
3

Voltage generator
C
q  cV
V
c is the capacitance of the sensor
V is the voltage generated
Charge generator
q is the charge generated C

q
Longitudinal vibration Sensor
l

b u

A
q   d31 1dA
0 (A=Area of PZT electrode)
which evaluates to d31 Piezoelectric coefficient

q  d31E p b  u(l )  u(0) 

Difference in displacement at the ends of the
sensor
Flexural (Bending) Vibration Sensor
x=0 x=l
l
w
b
x

A
q   d31 1dA (A=Area of PZT electrode)
0
d31 Piezoelectric coefficient
which evaluates to

d
q  d31 bE p w (l )  w (0) 
2
Difference in slope at the ends of the sensor
Piezoelectric Vibration Sensor
l w

b x u

A
q   d31 1dA
0

which evaluates to
 d 
q  d31E p b   u(l )  u(0)   q  w (l )  w (0)  
 
 2 
Longitudinal Bending
Piezoelectric Vibration Sensor
l

b
A4

Ar

  
w (l )  w (0)  jk b A4 1  e  jkB l


u(l )  u(0)  Ar 1  e  jkL l

Note this also acts like a filter
 Summary
• Review of wave motion

• Piezoelectric actuation and sensing