AM/FM TRANSMITTER

Radio Transmitters
 Transmitter Fundamentals
 A radio transmitter takes the information to be
communicated and converts it into an electronic
signal compatible with the communication
medium.
 This process involves carrier generation,
modulation, and power amplification.
 The signal is fed by wire, coaxial cable, or
waveguide to an antenna that launches it into free
space.
 Typical transmitter circuits include oscillators,
amplifiers, frequency multipliers, and impedance
matching networks.
Transmitter Fundamentals
 The transmitter is the electronic unit that accepts the
information signal to be transmitted and converts it
into an RF signal capable of being transmitted over
long distances.
Classification of Transmitters
 Classification is as follows
 Type of modulation used
 Service involved
 Frequency range
 Classification based on
Type of modulation used
 Amplitude Modulation Transmitters
 Frequency Modulation Transmitters
 Pulse Modulation Transmitters
 Classification based on
Type of Service involved
 Radio Broadcast transmitter
 Radio Telephone transmitter
 Radio Telegraph transmitter
 Television transmitter
 Radar transmitter
 Classification based on
Carrier Frequency
 Long wave transmitters (below 300KHz)
 Medium wave transmitters (550-1650KHz)
 Short wave transmitters (3-30 MHz)
 VHF and UHF transmitters
(30-300MHz and 300-3000 MHz)
 Microwave transmitters (1000 MHz)
 AM Transmitter
 A transmitter performs not only modulation but also
raises the power level of the modulated signal to the
desired extent for effective radiation.
 Based on the power level of modulated signals, the AM
transmitters are categorized as
 Low Power level AM Transmitter
 High Power level AM Transmitter
LOW LEVEL MODULATION TRANSMITTERS

Signal Low Level Power

Source Modulator Amplifier
(Modulating (Linear)
Signal)

RF Carrier
Oscillator

 The generation of AM wave takes place at a low power level.

 The generated AM signal is then amplified to the desired

power level using a chain of linear amplifiers ( A , AB or B).
 LOW LEVEL MODULATION TRANSMITTERS

Antenna

Class –A/B
Buffer Harmonic Modulated Tuned
Master amplifier Generator Amplifier Power
Oscillator Amplifiers

Audio
AF processing & Audio
modulating filtering/Audio Power
signal voltage Amplifier
amplifier
Low power level AM transmitter
 Master Oscillator: Used to generate RF carrier signal,
which can be of any conventional type crystal
oscillator.
 Buffer Amplifier: It is a low gain, high input
impedance linear amplifier that isolated the oscillator
from the power amplifiers.
 Modulated Amplifiers: They can be either emitter or
collector modulation type.
 Power Amplifiers: They can be either Class A or Class B
push pull type. The output impedance is matched to
the antenna by using an antenna matching network.
Drawbacks
 Lower efficiency of class B tuned amplifiers as
compared to class C.
 Class C cannot be used, since they does not faithfully
reproduce the modulating signal consisting of carrier
and sideband frequency components.
 The amplifier should possess the sufficient bandwidth
to amplify these components equally.
 Class C have narrow bandwidth, which may lead to
sideband cuttings and thereby to distortions.
 This can be overcome by High power level AM
transmitters.
HIGH LEVEL MODULATION TRANSMITTERS

Signal Wide Band

Source Power
(Modulating Amplifier
Signal)

High Level
Modulator

RF Carrier Narrow Band

Oscillator Power Amplifier

 The generation of AM wave takes place at high power

levels.
HIGH LEVEL MODULATION TRANSMITTERS
 Highly efficient class C amplifier are used in high level
modulation.

 Efficiency is more than low level modulation.

 HIGH LEVEL MODULATION TRANSMITTERS
Antenna

Buffer Harmonic
Class C
Modulated
Master Amplifier Generator
Power
Amplifier
Amplifier
Oscillator

AF Audio Modulating
modulating processing & Amplifier
signal filtering
HIGH LEVEL MODULATION TRANSMITTERS

 Many of the AM transmitters use the high level

modulation technique.

 The crystal oscillator produces the required carrier

signal. The class A amplifier following the oscillator
acts as a buffer which isolates the oscillator from the
high power circuit.
Individual Blocks in AM Transmitter
 Master Oscillator: Generate a stable sub harmonic carrier frequency by
using a crystal oscillator.
 The sub- harmonic frequency is used because stable crystal oscillators are
easy to make at lower carrier frequencies.
 Stability of master oscillator frequency:
 the carrier frequency generated by the master oscillator needs to be very
stable .
 Any change in the MO frequency will cause interference with other
transmitting stations and the receiver will accept programmes from more
than one transmitter.
 There are several reasons for the change in the frequency of a master
oscillator.
 They are
 Frequency Drift: The frequency drift means a slow variation in frequency
with time due to temperature variance and aging.
 Frequency scintillation : It means abrupt changes in frequency caused by
abrupt change in the load on the master oscillator .
 To avoid scintillation ,the master oscillator should be made to drive buffer
amplifier adjusted to draw little power from the master oscillator thereby
producing little loading of the master oscillator.
 Buffer amplifier or isolating amplifier :
 If the master oscillator directly drives a harmonic
generator or class C power amplifier, which may draw
input current, then power is drawn from the master
oscillator.
 This results in loading of master oscillator which in turn
causes variation of effective resistance of the tank circuit
of the oscillator and hence results in frequency variation.
 Accordingly a buffer amplifier or isolating amplifier is
placed between the master oscillator and the harmonic
generators.
 This buffer amplifier does not draw any input current and
hence causes no loading of the master oscillator.
 Changes in carrier frequency due to the variations in
loading are thus avoided.
 Harmonic generator :
 Usually master oscillator generates voltage at a
frequency which is a sub- multiple of the carrier
frequency that is, the frequency of the radiated power.
 Basically these harmonic generators are class C tuned
amplifiers in which the output RF voltage is first
distorted through class C operation and then the
tuned circuit in the output circuit of amplifier selects
the desired harmonic frequency.
 Class C amplifiers: R F voltage generated by the
master oscillator has usually very small power, of the
order of a few watts .
 The power level is required to be raised to the final
high-value in a chain of class C amplifier having high
output circuit efficiency of the order of 70%.
 In general first few stages of class C amplifier acts as
harmonic generators as well.
 Modulated Amplifier :
 This is a class C tuned amplifier usually of push pull
type and is modulated by audio modulating voltage
form modulating amplifier.
 High efficiency Series plate modulation is most
popularly used in high power radio broadcast and
radio telephone transmitters.
 Grid bias modulation and suppressor grid modulation
are sometimes used particularly for modulation at low
power levels.
 In small transistorized radio transmitter, collector
modulation or base modulation or both may be used.
 Modulating amplifier :
 This is usually a class B push pull amplifier and
feeds audio power into the modulation amplifier in
the plate circuit, control grid circuit or suppressor
grid circuit depending upon the method of
modulation used.
 Class B operation is generally used because of high
plate circuit efficiency.
 However, class A modulating amplifiers are also
sometimes used particularly in low power
transmitters.
COMPARISION BETWEEN LOW-LEVEL AND HIGH-
LEVEL MODULATION
1.Power level :
 Modulation is carried out  Modulation is carried
at low power level. out at high power level.

2. Amplifier stages:
 Need lesser amplifier  Need more amplifier
stages. stages.
COMPARISION BETWEEN LOW-LEVEL AND HIGH-
LEVEL MODULATION
3. Power efficiency :
 After modulation linear  Non linear amplifiers can
amplifiers can only be also be used. This leads to
used. This gives lower higher power efficiency.
power efficiency.
4. Power losses :  Power losses is less, the
 Power losses in amplifiers cooling problem is not
is higher, the cooling severe.
problem is severe.
COMPARISION BETWEEN LOW-LEVEL AND HIGH-
LEVEL MODULATION
5. Applications :
 Used as higher power  Used in TV transmitters.
broadcast transmitters.
Carrier Frequency Requirements of Radio
Transmitter
 Three main requirements
 Generated carrier frequency must be
exactly at the specified value
 Carrier frequency should be readily
adjustable
 Frequency Drift and Frequency
Scintillation should be extremely small.
 FM TRANSMITTERS
 Frequency modulation technique is used.

 In FM frequency of the carrier is varied in proportion

with the amplitude of the modulating signal keeping
its amplitude constant.
 Depending on the type of modulation used the
transmitters are also classified.
 Two types of FM Transmitters
 Directly Modulated (variable Reactance) FM transmitter.
 Indirectly Modulated (Phase Modulated) FM transmitter.
 Directly Modulated FM transmitter
Antenna

Class C
Reactance Frequency
Modulating Modulator
Power
Multiplier
Amplifier
Signal

Oscillator
 The maximum frequency deviation is kept small and
the modulated signal from the oscillator is then passed
to a frequency multiplier circuit which increases the
output frequency to the desired carrier frequency and
the desired frequency deviation.
 A Class C power amplifier drives the antenna.
Directly Modulated FM transmitter
 Example:
 Need to generate 96MHz carrier frequency signal to be
transmitted.
 Available carrier frequency is 4 MHz and with
deviation 3.125KHz.

fc=4MHz Frequency fc= 96MHz

Multiplier
Δf=3.125 KHz Δf=75KHz
n
 n value is
 Required deviation/actual deviation=75KHz/3.125KHz
 Therefore, n=24

2fc1 4fc1 8fc1 24 fc1

fc1 Freq
Freq dou Freq dou Freq dou
tripler
Δf
2Δf 4Δf 8Δf 24 Δf
Final Block diagram of the above example

Modulating signal To Antenna

Audio Pre Class C Three

Reactance Frequency
Power Frequency
Amplifier Emphasis Tube Tripler
Amplifier Doublers

Primary
Oscillator
(4MHz)
 Stabilized Directly Modulated FM
Transmitter
 The carrier frequency of reactance modulator FM
transmitter may drift due to one of the following
causes,
 Variation in supply voltage
 Variation in temperature and humidity
 Aging of electron device
 Indirectly Modulated FM Transmitter
 In this method, the stability of the carrier signal
frequency is guaranteed by using a crystal oscillator.

Driver Class C
Buffer Phase Frequency Power
Crystal Amplifier Modulator Multipliers
Amplifier
Amplifier
(Class C)
Oscillator

Integrator
(LPF)

Audio
Message
Pre- voltage/po
Signal
Emphasis wer
m(t)
Amplifier
 Crystal oscillator is used to generate the stabilized carrier
signal.
 Buffer amplifier isolates the crystal oscillator from the rest of
the system.
 The message signal is amplified using audio amplifier and is
then pre-emphasized which restricts the message signal band
limited to 15 KHz.
 This pre-emphazised a message signal is low pass filtered and
then applied to a phase modulator.
 The phase modulator generates, a signal of frequency which is
only a fraction of desired carrier frequency that is within 88-
108 MHz since the available crystal oscillators cannot generate
frequencies in the VHF/UHF range.
 The desired carrier frequency and frequency deviation of
75KHz are achieved by using one or more stages of frequency
multipliers.
 After frequency multiplication the desired power level to drive
the antenna is achieved by using the driver amplifier and a
power amplifier.
Radio Receivers
Main Functions
i. Intercept the electromagnetic waves in the receiving
antenna to produce the desired R.F. modulated carrier.
ii. Amplify the R.F. signal
iii. Select the desired signal and reject the unwanted
signals.
iv. Detect the RF carrier to get back the original
modulation frequency voltage .
v. Amplify the modulation frequency voltage.
Features
i. Simplicity of operation.
ii. Good Fidelity.
iii. Good Selectivity.
iv. Average Sensitivity.
 Classification
i. AM. (Amplitude Modulation) Broadcast Receivers.
ii. F.M. (Frequency Modulation) Broadcast Receivers.
iii. T.V. (Television) Receiver.
iv. Communication Receivers.
v. Code Receivers.
vi. Radar Receivers.
 Receiver Characteristics
 The performance of a radio receiver is judged
according to the following parameters,
 Sensitivity
 Selectivity
 Fidelity
 Sensitivity
 Ability to amplify weak signals. Broadcast receivers /
radio receivers should have reasonably high sensitivity.
 In simple words, sensitivity may be defined as the
minimum input signal required to produce a specified
output signal.
 It is often measured according to the input voltage
required to produce standard output power.
 Selectivity
 Selectivity of radio receiver is its ability to accept a
given band of frequencies & reject unwanted signals.
 Fidelity
 A measure of the ability of the receiver to produce, at
the output of the receiver, an exact replica of the
original source information.
 It refers to the reproduction, without distortion, of the
full range of the original audible sound of electronic
and electromechanical means.
A M Receivers
Basic Functions of A M Receivers
i. Reception.
ii. Selection.
iii. Detection.
iv. Reproduction.

1. Straight Receivers (TRF Receiver)

2. Superheterodyne Receiver.
 Tuned Radio-Frequency Receiver

Antenna
coupling RF RF RF
network amp. amp. amp.

• Difficult to
tune
Audio Audio
• Q remains detector amplifier
constant 
filter
bandwidth Nonuniform selectivity
varies
?
 For an AM receiver commercial broad cast band
receiver (535KHz to 1.605MHz) with an input filter Q
factor of 54 , determine the bandwidth at the low and
high ends of RF spectrum
 f 540
Band width at low frequency B   10 KHz
Q Q

f 1600
Band width at high frequency B   29630Hz
Q 54
-3dB band width at low frequency is 10KHz but at high
frequency 3 times that of the low frequencies.

Tuning at high end of the spectrum three stations would

be received simultaneously.
To achieve band width of 10KHz at high frequencies a Q
of 160dB is required but with a Q of 160 the band width
at low frequencies is
f 540
B   3375Hz
Q 160
It is too selective and band rejection will takes place.
Disadvantages of TRF receiver
 Poor selectivity and low sensitivity in proportion to the number of
tuned amplifiers used.
 Selectivity requires narrow bandwidth, and narrow bandwidth at a
high radio frequency implies high Q or many filter sections.
 An additional problem for the TRF receiver is tuning different
frequencies. All the tuned circuits need to tune together to the
same frequency or track very closely. Another problem to keep the
narrow bandwidth tuning. Keeping several tuned circuits aligned
is difficult.
 The bandwidth of a tuned circuit doesn’t remain constant and
increases with the frequency increase.
 The need to have all RF stages track one another
 Instability due to large number of RF stages.
 Received bandwidth increases with frequency (varies with center
frequency)
 Gain is non-uniform over a wide range of frequencies.
 Mixer / Converter
Section

RF Section Mixer IF Section

Pre RF Band pass IF

selector amplifier filter Amplifier

IF signal
RF signal

Local
Oscillator

Gang tuning
Audio amplifier Audio detector
Section Section

Audio AM
speaker Amplifier Detector

Audio Frequencies
 TRF - non uniform selective

Heterodyne receiver Gain

Selectivity
Sensitivity

Heterodyne Mix two frequencies together in a non

linear device.

Translate one frequency to another

using non linear mixing

Heterodyne receiver has five sections

RF section

Mixer / converter section

IF section

Audio detector Section

Audio amplifier
Section
 RF
Section
Amplifier stage
Pre-selector

It determines the sensitivity of

Broad tuned band pass filter with the receiver.
adjustable frequency that is
tuned to carrier frequency

RF amplifier is the first Receiver may

active device in the have one or more
Provide initial Reduces the noise
network it is the primary RF amplifier
band limiting bandwidth of the
contributor to the noise. depending on the
to prevent receiver and
And it is the predominant desired sensitivity.
specific provides the initial
factor in determining the
unwanted step toward
noise figure.
radio reducing the over
all receiver Due to RF amplifier
frequency Greater gain and better sensitivity
called image bandwidth to the
minimum Improved image frequency
frequency from rejection
entering into bandwidth required
to pass the Better signal to noise ratio
receiver. Better selectivity.
information signal.
RF
Amplifier
 Demodulation process:

High frequency Frequency RF  IF IF source information

signal translation

RF for commercial
AM broadcast band 535 – 1650 KHz and
broadcast purpose
IF 450 – 460 KHz.

FM broadcast band 88 – 108 MHz and IF

10.7MHz
 1. Local oscillator
2. Mixer
Mixer stage is a nonlinear device
Convert radio
frequencies to
intermediate frequency
Heterodyning takes place
in the mixer stage.
Radio frequencies are
down converted to
intermediate frequency
Carrier and sidebands
are translated to high
frequencies without
effecting the envelope of
message signal.
 Frequency Similar to Frequencies
conversion that of are down
modulator converted.
stage
The difference between the RF and Local
Frequency oscillator frequency is always constant IF
conversion
The adjustment for the center frequency
of the preselector and the adjustment for
local oscillator are gang tuned.

The two adjustments are mechanically tied together and single adjustment will change the
center frequency of the pre selector and the local oscillator
High side injection Low side injection

Local oscillator Local oscillator frequency

frequency is tuned is tuned below RF
above RF

f LO = fRf + fIF f LO = fRf - fIF

 Receiver RF input (535 – 1605 kHz)
RF-to-IF conversion
Preselector
535 - 565 kHz

535 545 555 565 kHz

Mixer
Oscillator
1005 kHz
high-side
injection
440 450 460 470 kHz IF filter (fLO > fRF)
450 – 460
flo  f RF  f IF kHz

IF Filter output
450 460 kHz
Frequency Mixer and
Oscillator
Frequency Conversion
535 540 545 550 555 560 565

440 445 450 455 460 465 470

Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel 3

450 455 460

For an AM super heterodyne receiver that uses high
side injection and has a local oscillator frequency of
1355KHz .Determine the IF carrier upper side
frequency, and lower side frequency for an RF wave
that is made up of a carrier and upper and lower side
bands 900 and 905 and 895KHz respectively .
 895 900 905
In KHz ch-2 Mixer / Converter
Section
RF Section
IF Section

Pre RF Band pass IF

selector amplifier filter Amplifier

450 455 460

Local In KHz ch-2
oscillator

Ganged tuning
LOCAL OSCILLATOR TRACKING:

TRACKING:
It is the ability of the local oscillator in a receiver to oscillate either above or
below the selected radio frequency carrier by an amount equal to the IF
frequency through the entire radio frequency band.

High side injection: Local oscillator frequency frf+fif

Low side injection: Local oscillator frequency frf-fif

Tracking
Preselector Preselector
Tuned circuit RF output PRESELECTOR AND LOCAL OSCILLATOR
Gang tuning

Ls LO output Local
frequency oscillator
tuned circuit

Lp
Ct Ls
Lp Co Lp Ct Co

TRACKING CURVE
Three point tracking
Poor tracking

Ideal tracking

600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

The tuned ckt in the preselector is tunable from the center frequency from 540KHz
to 1600 KHz and local oscillator from 995KHz to 2055KHz.( 2.96 to 1)

Tracking error: the difference between the actual local oscillator frequency to the
desired frequency.

The maximum tracking error 3KHz + or -.

Tracking error can be reduced by using three point tracking.

The preselector and local oscillator each have trimmer capacitor ckt in parallel with
primary tuning capacitor Co, that compensates for minor tracking errors in the high
end of AM spectrum.

The local oscillator has additional padder capacitor Cp in series with the tuning coil
that compensates for minor tracking errors at the low end of AM spectrum.

With three point tracking the tracking error can be adjusted from 0Hz at
approximately 600KHz, 950KHz AND 1500KHz
Image frequency :
It is any frequency other than the selected radio frequency
carrier that is allowed to enter into the receiver and mix
with the local oscillator will produce cross product
frequencies that is equal to the intermediate frequency.

flo =fsi+fif → fsi=flo-fif when signal frequency is mixed with

oscillator frequency one of the by products is the
difference frequency which is passed to the amplifier in
the IF stage.

The frequency fim= flo+fsi the image frequency will also

produce fsi when mixed with fo .

For better image frequency rejection a high IF is

preferred.

If intermediate frequency is high it is very difficult to

design stable amplifiers.
 2fif
fif fif

IF RF LO IM
SF frequency
Image frequency rejection ratio
It is the numerical measure of the ability of the preselector
to reject the image frequency.

Single tuned amplifier the ratio of the gain at the desired

RF to the gain at the image frequency.

IFRR  (1  Q 2  2
 f im   f RF 
      
 f RF   f im 
If multiple amplifiers are there the IFRR is nothing but
the product of IFRRs of the individual stages.
?
 In a broadcast superheterodyne receiver having no RF
amplifier, the loaded Q of the antenna coupling circuit
(at the input of the mixer ) is 100. If the intermediate
frequency is 455kHz, calculate the image frequency
and its rejection ratio at(a) 1000 kHz and (b) 25 MHz.
For an AM broad cast band super heterodyne receiver with If, RF,
LO frequencies are 455KHz, 600KHz, 1055KHz determine
1. Image frequency
2. IFRR for a preselector Q of 100

Fim = flo+fif

Fim = frf+2fif

Fim= 1510 kHz.

ρ= 2.113

IFRR= 211.3
For citizens band receiver using high side injection with an RF carrier of
27MHZ and IF center frequency of 455KHz determine

1. LO frequency
2. Image frequency
3. IFRR for a preselector Q of 100
4. Preselector Q required to achieve the same IFRR as that achieved for
an RF carrier of 600KHz input.

Ans:
1. 27.455MHz
2. 27.91MHz
3. 6.77
4. 3167.
Double spotting :

•It occurs when the receiver picks up the same station at

two near by points on the receiver tuning dial.

•It is caused by poor front end selectivity and inadequate

image frequency rejection.

•Weak stations are overshadowed.

Choice of IF : Factors
If the IF is too high
I. Poor Selectivity and Poor adjacent channel rejection.
II. Tracking Difficulties.
If the IF is too low
I. Image frequency rejection becomes poorer.
II. Selectivity too sharp and cutting off sidebands
III. Instability of oscillator will occur.
 Frequencies Used
1. Standard broadcast AM : 455 kHz (465 kHz).
2. AM,SSB ( shortwave reception ) is about 1.6 -2.3 MHz
3. FM (88-108 MHz): 10.7 MHz.
4. Television Rx: ( VHF band 54-223MHz and UHF band 470-
940 MHz): Between 26 and 46 MHz.
5. Microwave and RADAR ( 1-10GHz): 30,60,70MHz.
IF AMPLIFIER
Detector and AVC
Tone Compensation
Volume Control
Detector using
Transistor
Tone Control
Tuning Control
Example fim  flo  f IF
IFRR  1  Q  
2 2 fim  f RF  2 f IF
   fim / f RF    f RF / fim 

IFRR = 211.3  Q (600 kHz) = 100 (Simple preselector)

Low Q

455 kHz 1055 1510

600

IF RF LO Image
Example fim  flo  f IF
IFRR  1  Q2  2  fim  f RF  2 f IF
   fim / f RF    f RF / fim 

IFRR = 211.3  Q (27 MHz) = 3167

Q (600 kHz) = 100
Low Q High Q
27.455
455 kHz 1055 1510 27 MHz
600
27.91

IF RF LO Image RF LO Image
Solution: Use higher IF frequencies
 Gain and Loss
RF-section
Mixer
RF
Preselector
amplifier

oscillator

Bandpass Audio Audio

IF amplifier
filter detector amplifier

IF-section
Use dB !!!
Envelope detector or Peak detector

D
IF-in Audio out

R C

?
 Envelope detection

D
IF-in Audio out

R C

  RC
Envelope detection   RC

f m max  
 1m   1
2

2 RC

1
f m max  
2 RC
for m=70.7%
 Receiver Parameters

• Selectivity
• Bandwidth Improvement
• Sensitivity
• Dynamic Range
• Fidelity
•Insertion Loss
• Noise Temperature
 SQUELCH CIRCUITS
The purpose of the squelch circuit is to quite the receiver in the absence of the received
signal.

The AM receiver is tuned to a location in the RF spectrum where there is no RF signal. The
AGC circuit is adjust the receiver for a maximum gain.

The receiver amplifies and demodulates the noise signal.

Crackling and sputtering sound heard in the speaker in the absence of RF signal.

Each station is continuously transmitting carrier regardless of the no modulating signal.

The only time the idle receiver noise is heard is when tuning is between stations.

A squelch circuit keeps the audio section of the receiver turned off in the absence of the
received signal.

DISADVANTAGE : WEAK RF SIGNAL WILL NOT PRODUCE AN AUDIO OUTPUT.

F M Receivers
•FM receiver is like a super heterodyne receiver.

•Double conversion super heterodyne receiver

•The preselector , RF amplifier first and second mixers.

•If section and detector sections of FM receivers perform identical

functions to that of AM receiver.

•Preselector rejects he image frequency.

•RF amplifier establishes the signal to noise ratio and noise figure.

•The mixer down converts RF to IF .

•The IF amplifier provides the most of the gain and selectivity of the
amplifier.
PRESELECTOR

AGC voltage
RF AMPLIFIER

1st IF 2nd IF
BANDPASS BANDPASS BANDPASS
1ST MIXER 2ND MIXER IF AMPLIFIER
FILTER FILTER FILTER

BUFFER

Audio detector
BUFFER DEMODUL DEEMPHASIS
LIMITER NETWORK
ATOR

2ND OSCILLATOR

AUDIO
AMPLIFIER

1ST LOCAL
OSCILLATOR
The detector removes information from the modulated wave.

The AGC used in AM receivers and not used FM receivers because in FM there is
no information contained in Amplitude.

With FM receivers a constant amplitude IF signal in to demodulator is desirable.

FM RX have mush more UIF gain than AM receivers.

The harmonics are substantially reduced by the use of band pass filter which
passes only the minimum bandwidth necessary to preserve the information
signal.

The If amplifiers are specially designed for ideal saturation and is called limiter.

The detector stage consists of discriminator and de-emphasis network.

The discriminator extracts the information from the
modulated wave.

The limiter circuit and de-emphasis network contribute to

an improvement in signal to noise ratio which is achieved in
audio demodulator stage of FM receivers.

broadcast FM band receivers

IF = 10.7MHz for good image frequency rejection

Second IF is at 455KHz. IF amplifier to have relatively high

gain.