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Depletion
A REVIEW ON THE NATURE
OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere consists of
several layers
• A thin envelope of gases surrounding the
earth is called the atmosphere.
– The troposphere is the atmospheric layer
closest to the earth’s surface extending only
about 17 kilometers (11 miles) above sea
level at the equator and 8 kilometers (5 miles)
over the poles.
– The atmosphere’s second layer is the
stratosphere, which extends from about 17 to
about 48 kilometers (from 11 to 30 miles)
above the earth’s surface.
The atmosphere consists of
several layers
• Ozone (O3) is concentrated in a portion of the
stratosphere called the ozone layer, found
roughly 17–30 kilometers (11–19 miles) above
sea level.
– Stratospheric ozone is produced when some of the
oxygen molecules there interact with ultraviolet (UV)
radiation emitted by the sun.
– This “global sunscreen” of ozone in the stratosphere
keeps out about 95% of the sun’s harmful UV
radiation from reaching the earth’s surface.
The earth’s atmosphere is a dynamic
system that includes 4 layers
Atmospheric pressure (millibars)
0 200 400 600 800 1,000
120 75
Temperature
110
65
100
Thermosphere
90 55
Altitude (kilometers)
80
Altitude (miles)
70 Mesosphere 45
60
35
50
Stratosphere
40 25
30
Ozone layer 15
20
10 Troposphere 5
Pressure
(Sea 0 Pressure =
level) –80 –40 0 40 80 120 1,000 millibars
Temperature (˚C) at ground level
Fig. 15-2, p. 376
How might the earth’s climate
change in the future?
Weather and climate are not the
same
• Weather consists of short-term changes in atmospheric
variables, such as the temperature and precipitation in a
given area over a period of hours or days.
• Climate is determined by the average weather conditions of
the earth or of a particular area, especially temperature and
precipitation, over periods of at least three decades to
thousands of years.
• One or two warmer or colder years or decades can result
simply from changes in the weather; don’t necessarily tell
us that the earth’s climate is warming or cooling.
• Climate scientists look at data on normally changing
weather conditions to see if there has been a general rise
or fall in any measurements such as average temperature
or precipitation over a period of at least 30 years.
Climate change is not new
• Over the past 3.5 billion years, the planet’s climate
has been altered by volcanic emissions, changes in
solar input, continents moving slowly atop shifting
tectonic plates, and other factors.
• Over the past 900,000 years, the atmosphere has
experienced prolonged periods of global cooling and
warming, known as glacial and interglacial periods.
• For roughly 10,000 years, we have lived in an
interglacial period characterized by a fairly stable
climate and a fairly steady average global surface
temperature.
Climate change is not new
– For the past 1000 years, the average temperature of
the atmosphere has remained fairly stable but began
rising during the last century when people began
clearing more forests and burning more fossil fuels.
– Past temperature changes are estimated through
analysis of radioisotopes in rocks and fossils;
plankton and radioisotopes in ocean sediments; tiny
bubbles, layers of soot, and other materials trapped
in different layers of ancient air found in ice cores
from glaciers; pollen from the bottoms of lakes and
bogs; tree rings; and temperature measurements
taken regularly since 1861.
Estimated global average temperatures
and average temperature change
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE (over past 900,000 years AVERAGE TEMPERATURE (over past 130 years
TEMPERATURE CHANGE (over past 22,000 years TEMPERATURE CHANGE (over past 1,000 years
Stepped Art
Fig. 15-17, p. 389
Human activities emit large
quantities of greenhouse gases
• A natural process called the greenhouse effect
occurs when some of the solar energy absorbed
by the earth radiates into the atmosphere as
infrared radiation (heat).
• Four greenhouse gases absorb the heat which
warms the lower atmosphere and the earth’s
surface, helping to create a livable climate.
– Water vapor (H2O).
– Carbon dioxide (CO2).
– Methane (CH4).
– Nitrous oxide (N2O).
Human activities emit large
quantities of greenhouse gases
• Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the
mid-1700s, human actions—mainly the burning of fossil
fuels—have led to significant increases in the levels of
greenhouse gases in the lower atmosphere.
• The average atmospheric concentration of CO2 rose
dramatically during that time, along with the average
temperature of the atmosphere
• The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
was established in 1988 to document past climate
changes and project future changes; its network includes
more than 2,500 climate scientists and scientists in
disciplines related to climate studies from more than 130
countries
Human activities emit large
quantities of greenhouse gases
• In 2007, the IPCC issued a report based on more
than 29,000 sets of data, finding that:
– The earth’s lower atmosphere has warmed, especially
since 1980, due mostly to increased levels of CO2 and
other greenhouse gases.
– Most of these increases are due to human activities,
especially the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.
– These human-induced changes are beginning to
change the earth’s climate.
– If greenhouse gas concentrations continue to rise, the
earth is likely to experience rapid atmospheric warming
and climate disruption during this century.
Comparing atmospheric concentrations of
carbon dioxide (CO2) and the atmosphere’s
average temperature, 1880–2009
Human activities emit large
quantities of greenhouse gases
• Evidence that the IPCC and other climate scientists
used to support the major conclusions of the 2007
IPCC report:
– Between 1906 and 2005, the average global surface
temperature has risen by about 0.74 C° (1.3 F°).
Primarily since 1980.
– Average levels of CO2 in the atmosphere rose sharply
between 1960 and 2010.
– The first decade in this century (2000–2009) was the
warmest decade since, and 2010 was the warmest year
on record.
– In some parts of the world, glaciers are melting and
floating sea ice is shrinking.
Human activities emit large
quantities of greenhouse gases
– In 2010, NASA scientists reported on a survey of the
world’s major lakes, which showed that these lakes
have warmed since 1985 at rates of 0.81–1.8 Fo per
decade.
– During the 20th century, the world’s average sea level
rose by 19 centimeters (7 inches), mostly because of
runoff from melting land-based ice and the expansion of
ocean water as its temperature increased. By
comparison, sea levels rose about 2 centimeters (3/4 of
an inch) in the 18th century and 6 centimeters (2
inches) in the 19th century.
Much of Alaska’s Muir Glacier in Glacier Bay
National Park melted between 1948 and 2004
Satellite data shows a 39% drop in the average cover
of summer arctic sea ice between 1979 and 2010
CO2 emissions play an
important role
• Data from the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) show that
the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide
rose from a level of 285 parts per million (ppm)
around 1850 at the start of the Industrial
Revolution, to 390 ppm in 2010, a 37% increase.
• Major climate models indicate a need to prevent
CO2 levels from exceeding 450 ppm—an
estimated threshold, or irreversible tipping point,
that could set into motion large-scale climate
changes for hundreds to thousands of years.
How CO2 emissions from the burning of fossil fuels in
selected countries increased between 1965 and 2009
What role does the sun play?
• The energy output of the sun plays the key role in the
earth’s temperature and this output has varied over
millions of years, but separate studies concluded that
most of the rise in global average atmospheric
temperatures since 1980 could not be the result of
increased solar output.
• The atmosphere is now heating from the bottom up,
which indicates that inputs at the earth’s surface play an
important role.
• Since the mid-1970s, the sun’s output has remained
about the same and thus cannot account for the rise in
temperature since 1975.
What role do oceans play in
projected climate disruption?
• The world’s oceans help to moderate the earth’s
average surface temperature, and thus its climate,
by removing about 25–30% of the CO2 pumped into
the lower atmosphere by human activities.
• The oceans absorb heat from the lower atmosphere
and currents slowly transfer some CO2 to the deep
ocean.
• The ability of the oceans to absorb CO2 decreases
as water temperatures increase, so as the oceans
warm up, some of their dissolved CO2 is released
into the lower atmosphere.
What role do oceans play in
projected climate disruption?
• The upper portion of the oceans warmed by an
average of 0.32–0.67Cº (0.6–1.2Fº) during the
last century—an astounding increase
considering the huge volume of water involved—
most likely due to increasing atmospheric
temperatures.
• Increasing levels of CO2 in the ocean have
increased the acidity of its surface. This
threatens corals and other organisms with shells
made of calcium carbonate, which dissolves
when acidity reaches a certain level.
There is uncertainty about the effects of cloud
cover on projected atmospheric warming
• Warmer temperatures increase evaporation of
surface water and create more clouds, which
can either warm or cool the atmosphere.
• An increase in thick and continuous cumulus
clouds at low altitudes could decrease surface
warming by reflecting more sunlight back into
space.
• An increase in thin, wispy cirrus clouds at high
altitudes could increase the warming of the
lower atmosphere by preventing more heat from
escaping into space.
Section 15-5