Modelling turbulent flow (1)

• Why not solve the Navier-Stokes equations?

– No analytical solution possible
– In a computer, every small whirl would need to
be modelled. Even a 10cm3 volume would
require ~ 100,000,000 nodes
• Need to simplify
– Crossing of streamlines transfers momentum
between parts of the flow
 Modelling turbulent flow (2)
• Apparent shear stress - Boussinesq(1877)
– Turbulence provides a shear in the flow in
addition to viscous shear
– Even in low viscosity fluids, there will be a
shear
du
– Propose an apparent viscosity τ T  μ T
dy
– In general T> , so ordinary viscosity can be
neglected
 Reynolds stresses
Object: to include the random fluctuations in the
Navier-Stokes equations for the mean flow.

Method: represent all quantities by the mean plus fluctuation.

u  u  u p  p  p and so on
(T and  must also be considered for compressible flow)
Putting these into the Navier-Stokes equations and separating
out the time averaged and variable terms leads to a
modified set of equations
 Reynolds stresses-continuity
Continuity - what goes in must come out!
u v w
In laminar flow:   0
x y z
u  u v  v w  w 
In turbulent flow:   0
x y z
u v w u v w
Separating:      0
x y z x y z
u v w
Taking a time average:   0
x y z
Therefore, the fluctuating part u v w 
  0
also satisfies the continuity equation x y z
 Reynolds stresses - Navier Stokes
Similarly, the N-S equations become (Schlichting, Ch 18)

p   2 u  2 u  2 u    u2  uv  uw  

ρg x   μ 2  2  2   ρ  
x  x y z   x y z 
 u u u 
 ρ u  v  w 
 x y z  Shear stresses
Direct stress
 Reynolds stresses
• Compared to the laminar Navier-Stokes
equation, one new term has been added.
The other terms have been averaged to
remove the time dependency.
• The terms on the left are the forcing terms,
gravity, pressure, viscosity and turbulence
• The terms on the right are the response
terms du u u
(remember :  u )
dt t s
 Reynolds stresses in 2D
•No z,w terms y
u
•Steady, turbulent flow in x
direction
•Ignore gravity

x
p   2 u  2 u  2 u    u2  uv  uw  
ρg x   μ 2  2  2   ρ  
x  x y z   x y z 
 u u u 
 ρ u  v  w 
 x y z 
 Reynolds stresses in 2D
In 2D, the turbulent N-S equation therefore reduces to:

p 2u  uv u
 μ 2 ρ  ρv
x y y y
Note that there are now two shear stress terms.
 p   u  u
Re-writing:    μ  ρuv   ρv
x y  y  y

In turbulent flow, therefore u

τμ  ρuv
the shear stress is given by y
 Reynolds and Boussinesq
Boussinesq proposed an additive turbulent shear stress:
u u
τμ  μT
y y
So the additive term is equivalent to the Reynolds’ stress.
However, we need to know values for uv
in order to use this

Are the Reynolds’ stresses related to the flow velocity?

 Prandtl’s Mixing Length
•Analogous to the kinetic theory of gases
•Used because ‘it works’
Suppose ‘lumps’ of fluid move
u(y) randomly from one shear layer
y to another, a distance l apart.
y2 This carries momentum and the
l velocity difference must
y1
therefore be related to the
turbulence
 Prandtl’s Mixing Length
u
u  l
y
Turbulence is even in all directions (homogeneous)
u
v  u  l
y
So the Reynolds shear stress must be proportional to the
square of the mixing length times the velocity gradient:
2
 u 
uv  l  
2

 y 
 Prandtl’s Mixing Length
Returning to the equation for the shear stress:

u u u
τμ  ρuv τμ  μT
y y y
2
u 2  u 
μT    uv  ρl  
y  y 
This gives a direct relationship between turbulent ‘viscosity’
and velocity gradient in the flow
u
μ T  ρl2

y
 Prantdl’s Mixing Length
• We still need a value for the mixing length, l.
• In free turbulence, l will be constant.
• In wall generated turbulence, l will vary as
the distance from the wall. (l=ay)
• For a smooth wall y=0, l=0
• For a rough wall y=0, l=k (the surface
roughness)
 The Universal Law of The Wall
First define the friction velocity, V*, which is characteristic
of the fluctuating flow:
u
V 
*
uv  l
y
Assuming that the shear stress remains constant throughout,
then V* = const (typically V*~4% u)
Using the relation from above, l=ay, gives the differential
equation
u
V  ay
*

y
The Universal Law of The Wall
u 1
Integrating gives: *
 lny  c
V a
This is a dimensional logarithm. To make it
dimensionless, bring in the properties of the fluid, the
viscosity, , the density, , and the new pseudo-property
V*. Then noting that the kinematic viscosity = / 

u yV *
 Aln B
V *
υ
To find the values of A and B, experiments must be performed.
 Law of the Wall
u
V*

5.5

Laminar Buffer Turbulent yV *

ln
sub-layer zone layer υ
Mixing length measurement in pipes
 Law of the Wall
The slope gives a=0.4, and B=5.5, so

u yV *
 5.5  2.5ln
V *
υ
This is the law of the wall for smooth pipes. Note that it does
not apply to rough pipes or at a distance from the wall.