Brief History About the Subject

• Began in the early 1930’s with only one rule, “see and be seen”,
• The first air traffic controller at Missouri airport, Archie W. Leage in
1929.
• Colored flags were soon replaced by light guns.
• Radar was developed during World War II enabling controllers to point
out exact location of the aircrafts.
 VFR VS. IFR
• VFR
– Visual Flight Rules
• No flying through clouds

• IFR
– Instrument Flight Rules
• Permitted to fly through clouds
• Must file flight plan
• Must maintain communication w/ATC
• Must have Instrument rating
• Anytime above 18,000 FT. MSL

2
 Types of Airports
• Controlled – have
at least a part time
operating control
tower

• Uncontrolled – no
operating control
tower

3
 Runways - General
• All runway surface markings are white
• Runways are identified using numbers.
– Numbers are based on magnetic heading of runway rounded to
the nearest ten
– Position of runways can be further defined by using ‘L (Left)’, R
(Right)’, or ‘C (Center)’ as appropriate
• Most runways have specific obstacle clearance
requirements
• Runways are stressed to handle the impact of aircraft
touchdown

4
Types of Runways
 Runway Markings
• Visual Runway

– Runway Numbers
– Centerline

6
 Runway Markings
• Instrument  Papi
Precision  Touchdown
– Threshold Markings
– Runway Number  Runway End
– Touchdown Zone (500  Threshold
ft.)
– Aiming Point (1000 ft.)
– Distance Markings (500
ft.)
– Side Stripe

7
 Runway Markings
• Instrument
Non Precision
– Threshold Markings
– Runway Number
– Aiming Point (1000 ft.)

8
 Runway Threshold
• Come in two configurations.
1. Consist of eight longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions
2. The number of stripes is related to the runway width as indicated in.
Runways – Displaced Thresholds
 This portion is available for takeoff and landing

 This portion is available for takeoff roll and taxi

only
• Typically the result of obstacles on the approach
end of runway
10
Runways – Blast Pads

Pavement Unusable
Yellow markings are referred to as
Chevrons

11
 Runways – Closed Runways
• Permanently Closed: Yellow X’s are placed at each
approach end of the runway and at each 1000 ft.
interval. Threshold markings are obliterated.

• Temporarily Closed: Yellow X’s are placed at each

approach end of the runway. Temporary X’s may
be lighted

12
 Runways – Closed Runways
• Temporary, Lighted Runway Closure Markings

13
 Hold Short Line

• Installed at taxiway/
runway intersections
• Solid Side – Taxiway
• Dashed Side - Runway

14
 Taxiways - General
• All taxiway
markings are yellow

• Identified by
Letters (A, B, C) or
by Letter/ Number
combinations (A1,
B2, C3)

15
 Taxiway Lighting

• Taxiway Centerline Lighting – Unidirectional

Green

16
 Notes on Hold Short Lines
• NEVER cross the solid side of a Hold Short Line
unless you are cleared for takeoff or are
ABSOLUTELY SURE that you have permission
to cross!!!
• If you are not sure if you are cleared to cross a
runway, ASK!!!

17
 Airport Signs
• Installed at various points around an airport to
indicate…
– Location on Airport
– Location of Runways
– Direction
– General Information

18
Runway Signage Example

20
 Taxiway Lighting
• Taxiway Edge Lighting – Omnidirectional Blue

21
Airport Beacons

22
 Runway Lighting
• Runway Edge Light Systems
– Allows for identification of runway edges at night
– White along sides
• Last 2000 feet are yellow to form a caution zone for landing
– Green at Threshold Boundary
• Red at Departure End
• Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL)
• In-Runway Lighting
– Runway Centerline Lighting (RCLS)
– Touchdown Zone (TDZL)
– Taxiway Lead Off Lights

23
 Approach Lighting
• Aids pilots flying
instrument
approaches to
runways to
transition from
instruments to
visual when
landing

24
 Pilot Controlled Lighting (PCL)
• At airports without operating control towers airport
lighting is often pilot controlled
• By “clicking” the mic switch on the appropriate
frequency airport lighting can be controlled
• Click mic 7 times within 5 seconds to turn
airport lighting to highest intensity
– Identify airport, then step down lighting as
necessary
– Do this with other pilots in mind

25
26
 Visual Glideslope Indicators
• VASI – Visual Approach Slope Indicator
– Provides obstacle clearance within 4NM of the
runway threshold within 10º of centerline

• Below • On Slope • Above

27
 Visual Glideslope Indicators
• PAPI – Precision Approach Path Indicator

High Slightly On Slightly Low

High Glideslope Low

28
Visual Glideslope Indicators
 Wind Direction Indicators
• Wind Tee

30
 Wind Direction Indicators
• Tetrahedron

31
 Wind Direction Indicators
• Windsock
Wind

32
QUIZ TIME
 Types of Airspace
• There are four types:
– Controlled
– Uncontrolled
– Special Use
– Other

34
 How Airspace is Defined
• The type of airspace that exists depends on…
– Complexity or density of the aircraft movements
– Nature of the operations conducted within the
airspace
– Level of Safety Required
– National and Public Interest

35
 General
• During the 1990’s the National Airspace System
was restructured to conform to ICAO
(International Civil Aviation Organization)
standards

• The following are types of Regulatory Airspace…

– Class A, B, C, D, E, and G
• Class F does not exist in the United States but does exist
internationally
– Restricted Areas
– Prohibited Areas

36
 Class A Airspace
• Exists for the operation of Instrument Traffic
Only

• Structure
– Begins at 18,000 Mean Sea Level (MSL)
– Ends at FL 600

37
 Class B Airspace
• Structure
– Resembles an upside-down Wedding Cake
– Begins at the surface and typically extends to 10,000 msl.
– Mode C Veil – area extending 30NM from the primary airport of Class
B airspace. A Mode C (Altitude Reporting) Transponder is required in
this area.

• You must have a specific clearance to enter Class B Airspace.

38
 Class B Airspace
• Pilot Requirements
– Must hold at least a Private Pilot certificate or possess a proper
endorsement

• Equipment Requirements
– Two Way Radio
– Mode C Transponder

• VFR Weather Minimums

– Visibility: 3 SM
– Cloud Clearance: Clear of Clouds

39
 Transponder

• Used to communicate with Air traffic control

• Mode C
– Provides Altitude information to ATC
• Mode A
– No altitude info
• Mode S

40
 Class Bravo

3mi Visibility

Clear of
Clouds
 Class C Airspace
• Established at airports that have an operating control tower, radar
approach control, and that have a certain number of IFR or
Commercial operations.

• Structure
– Core Area – extends 5NM horizontally from the primary airport,
from - surface up to 4000 Above Ground Level (AGL)
– Shelf Area – extends 10NM horizontally from the primary airport
approximately 1200 agl up to 4000 agl.
• Outer Area – area where radar service will continue to be provided
• The Outer Area is a service area associated with Class C Airspace…it is
not a type of airspace.

42
 Class C Airspace
• Two-way radio communications must be
established with ATC prior to entering the Class C
– ATC must respond to using your call-sign.

43
 Class C Airspace
• Pilot Requirements – None

• Equipment Requirements
– Two-way Radio
– Mode C Transponder

• VFR Weather Minimums

– Visibility: 3 SM
– Cloud Clearance:
• 500 ft. below
• 1000 ft. above
• 2000 ft. horizontally

44
 Class Charlie

3mi Visibility
1000ft above

2,000ft across
500ft Bellow
 Class D Airspace
• Pilot Requirements – None

• Equipment Requirements
– Two-way Radio

• VFR Weather Minimums

– Visibility: 3 SM
– Cloud Clearance:
• 500 ft. below
• 1000 ft. above
• 2000 ft. horizontally

46
 Class D Airspace
• Established at airports which have an operational
control tower

• Structure
– Extends horizontally out approximately 5NM from the
primary airport
– Extends vertically from the surface up to 2500 agl.

• Two-way radio communications must be

established with ATC prior to entering the Class D
Airspace
47
 Class Delta

3mi Visibility
1000ft above

2,000ft across
500ft Bellow
 Class E Airspace
• Generally, if the airspace is controlled and is not Class B, C, or D…it is Class
E Airspace.
• Established where control of aircraft must be exercised by ATC.
– The aircraft that need to be controlled are IFR flights. There is no
requirement for VFR aircraft to contact ATC in Class E Airspace

• Structure
– Vertically the airspace extends up to, but not including, 18,000 msl.
– The base of Class E will vary depending on the service required. Unless
depicted otherwise, Class E Airspace GENERALLY begins at 1200 agl.

49
• Victor Airway (highway in the sky)
– Class E Airspace begins at 1200 agl
– Extends 4NM to either side of the airway

50
 Class E Airspace
• Pilot Requirements – None
• Equipment Requirements – None
• VFR Weather Minimums
– Below 10,000 msl
• Visibility: 3 SM
• Cloud Clearance: 500/1000/2000
– Above 10,000 msl
• Visibility: 5 SM
• Cloud Clearance: 1000/1000/1 SM

51
 Class G Airspace
• Airspace not designated as any other type of
airspace

• Structure
– Exists from the surface to 14,500 msl unless
designated otherwise
– Most commonly found from the surface to 1200
agl (abutting Class E)

52
 Class Echo

1000ft above
5mi Visibility

1 SM across
1000ft Bellow
10,000ft MSL

1000ft above
2,000ft across
3mi Visibility
500ft Bellow
 Class G Airspace
• Pilot Requirements – None

• Equipment Requirements – None

• VFR Weather Minimums

– 1200 agl or less (regardless of msl altitude)
• Day • Night
– Visibility: 1 SM - Visibility: 3 SM
– Cloud Clearance: Clear - Cloud Clearance:
of Clouds 500 ft. below
1000 ft. above
2000 ft. horizontally

54
 Class G Airspace
• VFR Weather Minimums
– Above 1200 agl (less than 10,000 msl)
• Day • Night
– Visibility: 1 SM - Visibility: 3 SM
– Cloud Clearance: - Cloud Clearance:
500 ft. below 500 ft. below
1000 ft. above 1000 ft. above
2000 ft. horizontally 2000 ft. horizontally

55
 Class G Airspace
• VFR Weather Minimums
– Above 1200 agl (above 10,000 msl)
• Visibility: 5 SM
• Cloud Clearance:
– 1000 ft. above
– 1000 ft. below
– 1 SM Clear of Clouds

56
 1000ft above
Class Golf
DAY
1 smVisibility 2000ft across
NIGHT
1000ft above
3 smVisibility
2000ft
across
500ft Bellow 500ft Bellow
1200ftft MSL

DAY
NIGHT 1000ft above
Clear of
Clouds 2,000ft across

1mi Visibility 3mi Visibility

500ft Bellow
 Other Airspace Areas
• Airport Advisory Areas
• Military Training Routes (MTR)
• Temporary Flight Restrictions
• Parachute Jump Areas
• Published VFR Routes
• Terminal Radar Service Areas
• National Security Areas
– Air Defense Identification Zone
– Distant Early Warning Identification Zone
 Special VFR
• Some Class B
• Class C,D airspace
• 1 mile clear of clouds
• Must request clearance from ATC
– Granted if no conflicting IFR traffic

59
QUIZ TIME
Aviation

Communications
 Basic Functions of ATC

Prevent collisions between the aircraft

whose pilots choose to participate in the
ATC service.

Organize and expedite the safe and orderly

flow of traffic, utilizing the airspace as
efficiently as possible.
 Communications vary depending on . . .

• the radios being used (capabilities)

• type of airport (controlled, uncontrolled)
• type of airspace (B, C, D, E, G)
• radar & other air traffic control services
 Audio Panel Components
• Speaker / phone components
• Radio selector switch
BENDEX / KING SPEAKER 2
1
VOX VOL EMG 3
4
1 COM 2 COM 3 COM 4 1 NAV 2 DME MKR 1 ADF 2 PULL
PA
EXT
SPKR
INTERCOM AUTO MIC
KM A 74H TSO PHONE
 These are the proper pronunciation of Numbers
Number Transmitted as Pronounced as
10 One Zero -WUN ZERO
100 One Hundred -WUN HUN DRED
2 500 Two Thousand Five Hundred -TOO TOUSAND FIFE
HUNDRED
11 000 One One Thousand -WUN WUN TOUSAND
25 000 Two Five Thousand -TOO FIFE TOUSAND
These are the proper pronunciation of Numbers and letters together:-

Number Transmitted as Pronounced as

BAW246 Speedbird Two Four Six -SPEEDBIRD TOO FOWER

SIX
FL100 Flight Level One Hundred -FLIGHT LEVEL WUN HUN
DRED
FL180 Flight Level One Eight Zero -FLIGHT LEVEL WUN AIT
ZERO
150 Degrees One Five Zero Degrees -WUN FIFE ZERO DEGREES
18 Knots One Eight Knots -WUN AIT KNOTS
122.1 One Two Two Decimal One -WUN TOO TOO
DAYSEEMAL WUN
(Squawk) 6500 Six Five Zero Zero -SIX FIFE ZERO ZERO
 Callsigns for Aeronautical Stations
Service Suffix
Area Control -CONTROL
Radar (in general) -RADAR
Approach Control -APPROACH
Aerodrome Control -TOWER
Approach Control Radar -DIRECTOR/DEPARTURE (RADAR - when tasks
combined)
Arrival/Departure -ARRIVAL - (when approved)
Ground Movement Control -GROUND
Military Aerodrome Traffic
Zone (MATZ) Crossing -ZONE
Precision Approach Radar -TALKDOWN
Flight Information -INFORMATION
Air/Ground Communication
Service -RADIO
Ground Movement Planning -DELIVERY
 Traffic Callouts from ATC
Clock
position Heading
Track
reference
system

“Cherokee 58R,
traffic at 11 Wind
o’clock, two miles,
a Cessna at 3,500,
southbound.”
 Time
• 24 hour clock
– 0300 3:00 A.M.
– 1500 3:00 P.M.
• UTC or Zulu time (old GMT)
– Coordinated Universal Time
– Greenwich Mean Time (old)
Flight Service Station
 FSS Services
• Pilot weather briefings
• Flight plans
• In-flight weather information
• Airport advisories
 Vortex Avoidance Procedures
Landing behind a larger aircraft on the same runway—stay at or
above the larger aircraft’s approach flightpath and land beyond its
touchdown point.

Landing behind a larger aircraft on a parallel runway closer than

2,500 feet—consider the possibility of drift and stay at or above
the larger aircraft’s final approach flightpath and note its touch
down point.

Landing behind a larger aircraft on crossing runway—cross above

the larger aircraft’s flightpath.
Landing behind a departing aircraft on the same runway—land prior to
the departing aircraft’s rotating point.

Departing behind a large aircraft—rotate prior to the large aircraft’s

rotation point and climb above its climb path until turning clear of the
wake.

Landing behind a larger aircraft on a crossing runway—note the

aircraft’s rotation point and, if that point is past the intersection,
continue and land prior to the intersection. If the larger aircraft rotates
prior to the intersection, avoid flight below its flightpath. Abandon the
approach unless a landing is ensured well before reaching the
intersection.

For intersection takeoffs on the same runway—be alert to adjacent

larger aircraft operations, particularly upwind of the runway of intended
use. If an intersection takeoff clearance is received, avoid headings that
cross below the larger aircraft’s path.
Recommended Communication Procedures
 Uncontrolled Airport
Communications
Traffic communications & advisories are
done on a participatory basis by all
air traffic working at that airport

See and Avoid

 CTAF
Common Traffic Advisory Frequency

UNICOM
An advisory radio frequency used at
airports for the purpose of information
& advisories to air traffic.
 Controlled Airport Communications
ATIS - Automated Terminal Information
Service
• Variety of information provided
• Listen before calling ground control
• Listen as many times as you like
• Shortens clearances and reduces repetition
by the controller
 Ground Control
• Services provided from the ramp to the
runway
• Ground control frequencies – usually
121.6 through 121.9, (but look for
others)
• “Ground, point niner” assumes that you
know 121
 Tower

• Services provided from the hold short

line throughout the Class D airspace
• Tower frequencies vary
 Approach and Departure
• Services provided usually within about 40
NM of the airport, but varies
• Approach / Departure Control – one for
arrival, one for departure, many times the
same person
 Radar - Services
• Traffic advisories
• Aircraft sequencing
• Aircraft separation
• Emergency aid
 Operating Principle

Echo principle
Interrogation signal
sent to the airplane
Airplane

Signal returned from

the airplane
Tower
 Operation Lights On
• Turn on landing light during
takeoff, either after takeoff
clearance has been
received or when
beginning takeoff roll
• When operating within 10
miles of any airport
• Purpose is to enhance see
and avoid concept

86
Traffic Pattern
Standard
Traffic Pattern
Non Standard
 Traffic Pattern

• Right Traffic / Left Traffic – Segmented Circle, Landing Strip

Indicators, and Traffic Pattern Indicators

89
 Exiting After Landing
• It is expected that aircraft will exit the runway as
soon as practical at the first available taxiway.
– ATC will not necessarily advise you at which taxiway to
turn off at
• DO NOT exit onto another runway unless directed
to do so by ATC.
• Taxi past and clear of the Hold Short Line. Do not
cross subsequent taxiways unless told to do so by
ATC.

91
 Operation on and in Vicinity of an Airport in VFR
Visual scanning

• 70% looking outside (for VFR)

• the most effective way to scan during daylight is through a series of short,
regularly spaced eye movements in 10-degree sectors.

*if there is no apparent relative motion between another aircraft and yours, you
are probably on a collision course

Blind spots and aircraft design:

Low wing – very easy to see above and difficult to see below
High wing – difficult to see above; easy to see below.

* before starting any maneuvers make clearing turns and carefully scan
the area for other aircrafts
*clearing turns should involve a change in a direction of at least 180
degrees
 VFR Cruising Altitudes

“Half Moon Principle”

00 - 1790 - fly odd thousands feet plus 500 feet
1800 - 3590 - even thousands feet plus 500 feet

IFR Cruising Altitudes

“Half Moon Principle”

00 - 1790 - fly odd thousands feet
1800 - 3590 - even thousands feet
 NOTAM’s- (Notice to Airmen)
- contains time-critical aeronautical information
that could affect a pilot’s decision to make a flight.

* 3 types of Notams
1.) NOTAM L (local) – included items such as
taxiway closures, construction activities, changes in runway
lighting etc.
2.) NOTAM D (distant) – includes important
items that will directly effect your flight, runway closures,
airport closures, lights don’t work, etc.
3.) NOTAM FDC – changes in publication in
amendments in aeronautical charts, changes to instruments
approach procedures.
 Transponder Components

• Function selector
• Selector code knobs
• Reply light
• Ident button
 Transponder Layout

Function Reply Code

Selector Light Windows

ON
SBY
SPR ALT 1 2 1 4
OFF TST IDENT
KT76A

BENDEX / KING

Ident Control
Pushbutton Knobs
 Use of Transponder
• Squawk code
• Squawk ident
• Squawk standby
• Squawk altitude
 General
Transponder Codes

• VFR 1200
• Emergency 7700
• Loss comm 7600
• Hijack 7500
 Inoperative Radio
• Taxi
• Departure/arrival
• Light gun signals
Lost Communication Procedure
 ATC Procedures in Lingayen
• Training Areas
• Departure Procedures
 To Dagupan
 To San Carlos
 To Bugallon
 To Alaminos
• Arrival Procedures
 From the South
 From the North/NorthEast
 From the West
• Training Areas
 Alaminos, Dagupan, San Carlos, Bugallon
• Common Flow and Procedure for Flight Training Radio
Communication
 Amplified Procedure For Departing From A Controlled Airport

• Departing from an uncontrolled Airport

 Amplified Procedure For Departing From An Uncontrolled Airport
QUIZ TIME