Chapter 01

Concepts of Radiologic
Science
First Radiograph by Roentgen:
The hand of Mrs. Roentgen
Goal of X-ray Imaging
To produce a good
quality x-ray image
with the least
exposure to the
patient , the
radiologic
technologist and the
general public
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Historical Development in
Radiology
Crookes Tube + static generator
- few mA to 50 kVp
- 30 min or longer exposure time
Coolidge Tube + Snook Transformer
- start of modern radiology

- 1000 mA , 150 kVp
- millisecond exposure time
Other Developments
 Michael Pupin – demonstrated the use

of a radiographic intensifying screen
 Charles Leonard – demonstrated the
use of double emulsion radiography
 Thomas Edison – developed the
fluoroscope
 Clarence Dally – first x-ray fatality in the
US
Other Developments
 William Rollins – adopted the first
collimation and filtration technique
 Gustav Bucky – invented the stationary
grid
 H. Potter – invented the moving grid
First Medical X-Ray Exam in
USA
 Showed :
 No radiation
protection in
place.
 Why Clarence
Dally became the
first x-ray fatality
in the US.
All Things
in the
Universe
Matter Energy
Molecules
Atoms
E = mc2
Physics
The study of matter and energy
 Classical or Newtonian Physics
• Based on Newton’s three laws of motion
• An accelerating body releases energy and
gradually slows down and stopped when all the
energy has been released.
 Quantum Physics
• Based on Bohr,s Postulate
• An electron moving around the nucleus does
not gain nor lose energy.
Matter
 Anything that occupies space and has
mass
 Mass – quantity contained in matter
 Inertia – property of matter to resist
change in motion
MASS
 The primary distinguishing characteristic of

matter
 The quantity of matter contained in an
object
 Best described by its energy equivalence
 Measured in: kilogram (kg)
 1000 cm3 of water at 4 oC
Law of Inertia
A body at rest will remain at rest and a body

in motion will stay in motion unless an
unbalanced external force is exerted on the
said body because of inertia.
WEIGHT
 The force that an object exerts under the

influence of gravity
 Measured in: Newton (N) or pound (lb)
 Formula: Wt = mg
 Space: zero gravity
Energy
 The capacity to do work

 Work – physical quantity that describes
energy
 Work – Force x distance
 Joule – SI unit of energy
 Newton – SI unit of force
Law of Energy Conservation
 Energy cannot be created nor
destroyed. It can only be transformed
from one form to another.
 the sum of all matter and energy is
constant
Electromagnetic
E = hf
Kinetic Electrical
E = ½mv² E = Pt
ENERGY
Chemical Nuclear
Energy released in
combustion/digestion
E = mc²
Potential Thermal
E = mgh E = hf
DEVICES ENERGY CONVERSION
ENERGY ELECTRIC TO
X-RAY TUBE
ELECTROMAGNETIC
ELECTRIC TO
ELECTRIC MOTOR
MECHANICAL
MECHANICAL TO
GENERATOR
ELECTRIC
ELECTROMAGNETIC TO
FILM
CHEMICAL
BATTERY CHEMICAL TO ELECTRIC
RECHARGEABLE
ELECTRIC TO CHEMICAL
BATTERY
ELECTRICAL TO
TRANSFORMER
ELECTRICAL
THEORY OF RELATIVITY
 States that mass and

energy are
interchangeable
E=mc2: mass-energy
equivalence equation
 Basis for:
 Atomic bomb
 Nuclear power plants
 Nuclear Medicine
Concept of Radiation
Radiation
Energy that travels/propagates in space in
a form of waves and /or particles.
 Electromagnetic Radiation
• Energy that travels in waveform
• Includes x-ray, gamma ray, radiofrequency,
microwave , infra-red, visible light, ultraviolet
 Particulate Radiation
• Energy that travels in a form of particles.
• Alpha , beta minus , beta plus , neutrons
Radiation
Electromagnetic wave Particulate

 No mass  Has mass
 No charge  Has charge
 Characterized instead  Has kinetic energy
by its wavelength ,
frequency and velocity
Radiation may be classified as:
Electromagnetic radiation Particulate radiation
• radiofrequency • electrons
• infrared • positrons
• visible light • protons
• ultraviolet • neutrons
• X rays
• gamma rays
Radiation may also be
classified as:
Ionizing Non-ionizing
 Capable of just raising
 Capable of removing an the electron to a higher
electron from an atom level of energy
 Includes x-ray, gamma (excitation)
ray, alpha particles, beta  Includes all non-ionizing
particles , heavy electromagnetic waves :
nuclides and neutrons
 Radiowaves
 Microwaves
 Infrared
 Visible light
 Ultrviolet
IONIZING RADIATION
 Any type of radiation
capable of removing
an orbital electron
from the atom with
which it interacts
 RESULTS IN:
 Ion pair
 Characteristic x-rays
 EXAMPLES: x-rays,
gamma rays & UV
light
In diagnostic radiology, the only
particulate radiation that needs to be
considered is the electron
rest mass of electron = 9.109 ×10-31 kg
rest energy of electron = 511 keV =

0.511 MeV
Sources of Ionizing Radiation
Natural Man-made
Environmental
Cosmic rays Medical
Terrestrial Industrial
Radiation
Consumer
Internal Products
Radionuclides
Nuclear Power
Ionizing radiation - can ionize matter
either:
Indirectly:
Directly: X- or gamma- ray photons or
neutrons that first transfer
fast charged particles that
their energy to fast charged
deposit their energy in
particles released in one or a
matter directly, through
few interactions in the matter
many small Coulomb
through which they pass. The
(electrostatic) interactions
resulting fast charged
with orbital electrons
particles then deposit their
along the particle track
energy directly in the matter
Ionization potential is the minimum energy
required to ionize an atom. For elements its
magnitude ranges from a few eV for alkali
metals to 24.5 eV for helium. For water it is
12.6 eV
Element Ionization potential (eV)
H 13.6
C 11.3
O 13.6
Mo 7.1
W 7.9
Radiation Sources
Annual Doses
Natural/Environmental Medical Imaging
 3 mSV  3.2 mSv
 0.4 mSv (internal)  1.5 mSv(CT scan)
 0.3 mSv  0.7 mSv (Nuc.
(Terrestial) Med)
 0.3 mSv (cosmic)  0.6 mSv
 2.0 mSv (Radon) (radiography)
 0.4 mSv
(interventional)
Electromagnetic Waves
y  Electromagnetic waves
consist of oscillating
Eo electric and magnetic fields,
c which are at right angles to
Bo each other and also to the
direction of wave
z
propagation
 x
They are characterized by their:

For X rays:
• wavelength is usually • amplitudes Eo and Bo
expressed in nanometre (nm) • wavelength ( λ )
(1 nm = 10-9m) and
• frequency is expressed in hertz
• frequency (n ) and
(Hz) • speed c = λ n
(1 Hz = 1 cycle/sec = 1 sec-1)
 In vacuum, c = 3×108m/s 34
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ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
ENERGY (eV)
Electromagnetic spectrum as a function of:

photon energy (eV)
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
HIGHEST SHORTEST
GAMMA RAYS HIGHEST ENERGY
FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH
X-RAYS
UV RAYS
VISIBLE LIGHT
INFRARED LIGHT
MICROWAVE
LOWEST LONGEST
RF LOWEST ENERGY
FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH
When interactions with matter are considered,
electromagnetic radiation is generally treated as series of
individual particles, known as photons. The energy E of
each photon is given by:
E  hv  hc / 
h (Planck’s constant) = 6.63×10-34 J∙s = 4.14×10-15 eV∙s
1 eV = 1.6×10-19 J, is the energy given to an electron by accelerating it through
1 volt of electric potential difference
n (Hz = s-1) is the frequency of electromagnetic wave

 (m) is the wavelength of electromagnetic wave
In diagnostic radiology the photon energy is usually expressed in units

of keV. 1 keV = 1000 eV
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY
 The dual nature of EM radiation
 EM radiation behaves as both a wave and a
particle
 Particle: all radiation with higher frequency
and shorter wavelength (e.g. X-rays and
gamma rays)
 Wave: all radiation with lower frequency and
longer wavelength than x-rays
WAVE THEORY
 EM radiation travels through space in a
form of waves
 EM has an associated frequency and
wavelength
 Sine Wave: waveform of EM radiation
 Wave Parameters: Wavelength,
frequency and velocity
 Need to describe EM radiation
WAVELENGTH
 Distance from one
point on the sine wave
to the next
corresponding point
 Usually measured from
 Crest to crest
 Valley to valley
 Inversely proportional
to the frequency
WAVELENGTH
 Unit: meter
 Represented by
Lambda (λ)
 Kilometers to Angstrom
 X-rays:
 10-10-10-14 m
 0.1-0.5 Å
 1018-1022 Hz
 10 keV-50 MeV
AMPLITUDE
 The intensity of the
wave defined by its
maximal height
 The width of a
waveform
 not related to
wavelength or
frequency
FREQUENCY
 The rate of rise & fall
 The number of cycles
per second
 The number of waves
that passes a
particular point in a
given time
 Inversely proportional
to the wavelength
FREQUENCY
 Represented by nu
(v) or f
 Unit: hertz (Hz)
 1 Hz = 1 cps
 Period: the time
required to
complete one cycle
VELOCITY
 One common property of EME

 constant
 Equals to the speed of light (c)

3 x 108 m/s
 186,400 mi/s
PARTICLE THEORY
 EM radiation acts like
a small bundle of
energy (photon or
quantum)
 Carries a specific
amount of energy
 Dependent on
frequency
 Directly proportional
(according to Planck‘s
Quantum Equation)
PHOTON
 The smallest quantity of any type of
electromagnetic energy
 Quantum of electromagnetic energy
 Waveform: sinusoidal fashion
 Properties: frequency, wavelength,
velocity and amplitude
PLANCK‘S QUANTUM
EQUATION
 E = hf
 Equivalent Equation:
 f = E/h
 E = hc/λ
 Planck’s Constant
(h):
 4.15 x 10-15 eV-s
 6.63 x 10-34 J-s
QUESTION
What is the frequency of a

72 keV x-ray photon?
SOLUTION
 Formula: f = E/h
 Given:
E = 72 keV or 7.2 x 104 eV
 h = 4.15 x 10-15 eV-s
 f = E/h
 f = 7.2 x 104 eV/4.15 x 10-15 eV-s
 f = 1.73 x 1019 Hz
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
EQUATION
X-RAY PROPERTIES
 Highly penetrating
 Invisible rays
 Electrically neutral
 Not affected by either electric or magnetic
field
 Polyenergetic and heterogenous
 Travel at a speed of light in a vacuum
 Travel in straight lines
X-RAY PROPERTIES
 Release a very small amount of heat
upon passing through matter
 Can ionize matter
 Cause fluorescence of certain crystals
 Cannot be focused by lens
 Affect photographic film
 Produce chemical and biological
changes in matter
 Produce secondary and scatter
radiation
Basic Atomic Concepts
Basic Definition
 Atom is still considered as the smallest particle of
matter.
 An atom is composed of a central nucleus
surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged
electrons
Most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the
atomic nucleus which consists of:
• Z protons and
• (A – Z) = N neutrons
Z: Atomic number
A: Atomic mass number
Particle Charge (C) Rest energy (MeV)
Electron (e) - 1.602×10-19 0.511
Proton (p) +1.602×10-19 938.28
Neutron (n) 0 939.57
In a non-ionised atom:
number of electrons = number of protons
Radius of an atom ≈ 0.1 nm

Radius of the nucleus ≈ 10-5 nm
3 FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ELECTRON PROTON NEUTRON
LOCATION Orbital shell Nucleus Nucleus
MASS Lightest - Heaviest
Negative Positive Neutral
CHARGED
-1 +1 0
John Joseph
DISCOVERED BY Eugene Goldstein James Chadwick
Thomson
Protons and neutrons are referred to as nucleons
They are bound in the nucleus with the strong force
The strong force between two nucleons is a very

short-range force, active only at distances of the
order of a few femtometer (fm). 1 fm = 10-15 m
60
Atomic mass Chemical 27 Co (Co-60)
number = symbol for
Z+N nucleus of Cobalt-60 with 27
the element
protons and
A 33 neutrons
Z X or X-A 226 (Ra-226)
88 Ra
Atomic nucleus of Radium-226 with 88
number
protons and 138 neutrons
CHEMICAL SYMBOLS
 The alphabetic
abbreviations of an
element
 Examples:
 Hydrogen = H
 Tungsten = W
 Carbon = C
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
 Determine by the
number of protons
 Chemical
Properties:
 Determined by the
number and
arrangements of e-
ATOMIC NUMBER
 Determines the
number of
protons/electrons
 Symbol: Z
ATOMIC MASS UNIT
 Describes the precise mass of an atom
 The mass of a neutral atom of an
element
 Expresses the mass of the atom
 Symbol: amu
 1 amu = 1/12 the mass of carbon-12
atom
ATOMIC MASS NUMBER
 Used when precession is not required

or necessary
 Equal to the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus
 Symbol: A
VALENCE STATE
 The chemical
combining
characteristic of an
element
 Determined by the
number of
electrons in the
outermost shell
Atomic g-atom (gram-atom) is the number of grams
of an atomic substance that contains a number of
atoms exactly equal to one Avogadro’s constant
(NA = 6.022 × 1023 atoms/g-atom)
Atomic weight definition means that Ar grams of

each element contain exactly NA atoms. For a single
isotope M grams contain NA atoms
Example:
• 1 gram-atom of Cobalt- 60 is 59.93 g of Co-60
• 1 gram-atom of Radium-226 is 226.03 g of Ra-226
Molecular g-mole (gram-mole) is defined as the number
of grams of a molecular compound that contains exactly
one Avogadro’s constant of molecules
(NA = 6.022 × 1023 molecule/g-mole)
The mass of a molecule is the sum of the masses of the

atoms that make up the molecule
Example:
1 gram-mole of water is ≈18 g of water
1 gram-mole of carbon dioxide is ≈ 44 g of carbon dioxide
NA
Number of atoms per N am 
unit mass of an element: Ar
Number of electrons Z
per unit mass of an element: ZN am  NA
Ar
NA
Number of electrons per unit ZN aV  ZN am  Z
volume of an element: Ar
NA: Avogadro constant, Z : atomic number

Ar : atomic weight,  : density
Note that (Z/ Ar) ≈ 0.5 for all elements, except for hydrogen, for
which (Z/ Ar) = 1. Actually, (Z/Ar) slowly decreases from 0.5 for
low Z elements to 0.4 for high Z elements
Atomic Models
How the atomic models developed with
time?
 EMPEDOCLES – ALL MATTER IS COMPOSED OF FOUR
ELEMENTS – FIRE , AIR, WATER , EARTH
 DEMOCRITUS – ATOM IS THE SMALLEST PARTICLE OF

MATTER AND IS INDIVISIBLE
 ARISTOTLE – THE FOUR CORE ELEMENTS COULD BE

TRANSFORMED INTO ONE ANOTHER
 TORRICELLI – SHOWED THAT AIR CAN PUSH LIQUID

MERCURY WHICH PROVES THAT AIR HAS WEIGHT AND
HAS A PHYSICAL PROPERTY BUT CANNOT BE FELT BY
HUMAN BODY.
BERNOULLI – ANSWERED TORRICELLI’S DISCOVERY
BY PRESENTING THAT AIR AND OTHER GASES ARE
MADE OF TINY PARTICLES THAT ARE LOOSELY
PACKED IN A VOLUME OF SPACE.
PRIESTLY – ESTABISHED THE FACT THAT SUBSTANCE

CAN COMBINE OR BREAK APART TO FORM ANOTHER
SUBSTANCE ; DISCOVERED OXYGEN
LAVOISIER – DISCOVERED WATER WHEN HYDROGEN

AND OXYGEN COMBINES; ESTABLISHED THE LAW OF
MASS CONSERVATION ; MASS IS NOT LOST NOR
GAINED IN A CHEMICAL REACTION
DALTON – INTRODUCED THE FIRST MODERN ATOMIC

THEORY
MODERN ATOMIC THEORY
 All matter is composed of
indivisible particles called atom
 Atoms of a given element are identical; atoms of

different elements have different properties.
 Chemical reactions involve the combination of atoms,

not the destruction of atom
 When elements react to form compounds, they react in

defined, whole-number ratios (LAW OF DEFINITE
PROPORTION – introduced by Joseph Proust)
ANCIENT GREEKS
 “Atomos” means
indivisible
 Four substances:
earth, water, air, &
fire
 Four Essences:
wet, dry, hot, & cold
DALTON ATOM
JOHN DALTON
“HOOK-AND-EYE
AFFAIR”
THOMSON ATOM
JOHN JOSEPH
THOMSON
“PLUM PUDDING”
 Plum: electrons
 Pudding: a shapeless
mass of positive
electrification
Millikan Oil Millikan was
Drop able to
measure the
Experiment charge of an
electron from
his oil drop
experiment
using the
formula : qE
= mg
Where q = -
1.6 x 10-19
Coulomb
 Faraday’s
observation leads to
the discovery of
electrons.
 In 1838 , Faraday
noted that when
passing current
through a glass tube
filled with rarefied air
(evacuated gas) , an
arc of electricity was
observed which
started from the
negative side
(cathode) and
traveled to the
positive side (anode)

Cathode rays
 Travels in a straight path from cathode to anode

and causes fluorescence behind the anode side
of the glass tube.
 Goldstein was the person who coined the name
cathode rays.
 -William Crookes repeated experiment of Faraday
and observed that the dark space have moved
further from the cathode and fluorescence was
observed on the glass behind the anode at the
positive end of the tube. These shadows must
have been caused by something travelling in a
straight line from cathode to anode;
Raisin Bread
or Plum JJ Thomson was able to
measure the charge to
Pudding Model mass ratio of the
cathode rays he
previously called
corpuscles and was later
known as electrons.
-this tiny sub atomic

particles has a mass that
is about 1000 times
lighter than the hydrogen
atom
Thomson introduced the

“ Plum Pudding Model”
or the “Raisin Bread”
model
RUTHERFORD ATOM
ERNEST
RUTHERFORD
“NUCLEAR
MODEL”
Alpha scattering experiment
Ernest Rutherford
introduced the
nuclear model.
He also introduced
the classical
concept that
electrons are
moving around the
nucleus based on
classical physics.
Modern quantum mechanical model of the atom is
built on the work of many physicists
The idea of a dense central nucleus surrounded by
orbiting electrons was first proposed by
Ernest Rutherford in 1911
Rutherford’s atomic model is based on results of the

Geiger- Marsden experiment of 1909 with
a particles emitted from Radium, scattered on thin gold
foils with a thickness of 0.00004 cm
Geiger and Marsden found that:
• more than 99% of the a particles incident on the gold foil were
scattered at scattering angles less than 3o
• roughly 1 in 104 alpha particles was scattered with a scattering
angle exceeding 90o
This finding (1 in 104) was in drastic disagreement with the
theoretical prediction of one in 103500 resulting from Thomson’s
atomic model
Rutherford proposed that: Rutherford atomic model
• mass and positive charge of the
atom are concentrated in the
nucleus of the size of the order
of 10-15 m
• negatively charged electrons

positive charge
revolve about the nucleus with a
radius of the order of 10-10 m negative electrons
The Rutherford atomic model, however, had a
number of unsatisfactory features
For example, it could not explain the observed

emission spectra of the elements
Visible lines of emission spectrum for Hydrogen
BOHR ATOM
NEILS BOHR
“MINIATURE
SOLAR SYSTEM”
Bohr Atom Introduced the
Quantum Atomic
Model
Bohr Postulated that

electrons does not not
lose nor gain energy
when moving around
the nucleus at a
specific energy levels.
NEILS BOHR
Electron Shells
 Atomic
 Nucleus
Maximum
Electrons per Shell
Shell Symbol
Number of
Number Electrons
Shell 1 K 2
2 L 8
Max # 3 M 18
electrons=2n2
4 N 32
5 O 50
(n = shell
number) 6 P 72
7 Q 98
ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT
MAXIMUM ELECTRONS PER SHELL

 Formula: 2n
2
 n = shell number (principal quantum

number)
OCTET RULE
ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT
 Number of electrons in the outermost

shell
= GROUP NUMBER
= VALENCE STATE
 Number of shells occupied by electrons

= PERIOD NUMBER
PERIODIC TABLE
TWO FORCES ACTING ON AN
ELECTRON
 CENTRIPETAL
FORCE
 CENTRIFUGAL
FORCE
CENTRIPETAL FORCE
 The force that

keeps an electron
in orbit
 Center-seeking
force
 The attractive
electrostatic force
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
 The force that

causes an electron
to travel straight and
leave the atom
 Flying-out-from-the-
center force
 The electron binding
energy
ELECTRON BINDING ENERGY
 The strength of attachment of an electron to

the nucleus
 The energy required to completely remove
an electron from the atom
 Symbol: Eb
 The closer to the nucleus, the higher the Eb
 Inner shell: higher/larger Eb
 Outer shell: lower/smaller Eb
In order for electrons to stay in
their respective shells , their
binding energy must
counteract the electrostatic
force exerted on them by the
positive nucleus.
In 1913, Niels Bohr elaborated the model of hydrogen
atom, based on four postulates:
• the electron revolves in circular allowed orbit about the proton under the
influence of the Coulomb force of attraction being balanced by the
centripetal force arising from the orbital motion
• while in orbit, the electron does not lose any energy in spite of being
constantly accelerated
• the angular momentum of the electron in an allowed orbit is quantized and
only takes values of nћ, where n is an integer and ћ = h/2p, where h is
Planck’s constant
• an atom emits radiation when an electron ni Ei

makes a transition from an initial orbit with
E = Ei - Ef
quantum number ni to a final orbit with
quantum number nf for ni > nf. nf Ef
Theory of Quantum Mechanics
Through the work of Heisenberg, Schrödinger, Dirac, Pauli
and others the theory of quantum mechanics was developed.
In this theory, the electrons occupy individual energy states
defined by four quantum numbers as follows:
• the principal quantum number, n, which can take integer values

and specifies the main energy shell
• the azimuthal quantum number, l, which can take integer
values between 0 and n − 1
• the magnetic quantum number, m, which can take integer
values between – l and +l
• the spin quantum number, s, which takes values -1/2 or +1/2 and
specifies a component of the spin angular momentum of the
electron
According to the Pauli Exclusion Principle, no two
electrons can occupy the same state and it follows
that the number of electron states that can share the
same principal quantum number n is equal to 2n2
The energy levels associated with n = 1, 2, 3 etc.

are known as the K, L, M etc. bands
ATOMIC THEORY II KEY
CONCEPTS
 Light and Particles have properties that are
consistent with wave and particles
 De Broglie – describes the electron behaving like a
wave
 The diffraction pattern of electrons is consistent with
the patterns of x-rays.
 the Schrödinger equation describes how the wave
function (Ψ) of a quantum system changes over time
(Equation 1). Schrodinger describes the three sets of
quantum numbers principal quantum numbers , spin
quantum number and angular quantum number
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
One cannot predict simultaneously the exact location and

momentum of an electron
Pauli Exclusion Principle
No two electrons can have the same sets of quantum

numbers
Concept of Radioactivity
Radioactivity
The spontaneous emission of both
particulate and gamma radiation when
unstable nuclides transform to become
a stable nuclide.
Nuclide – any specie of a nucleus.
A nuclide can be:
Unstable nuclide Stable nuclide

 Nuclides with excess  Nuclides with no
mass or energy excess mass or
 Also called energy
radionuclides
Classifications of nuclides
 Isotopes
 Isobars
 Isotones
 Isomers
 Isotopes of an element
• Atoms with same Z, but different number of neutrons
(and A)
59 60
• e.g. 27 Co 27 Co
• ‘Nuclide’ refers to an atomic species, defined by its

makeup of protons, neutrons, and energy state
• ‘Isotope’ refers to various atomic forms of a given chemical
element
 Isobars
• Common atomic mass number A
• e.g. 60Co and 60Ni
 Isotones
• Common number of neutrons
• e.g. 3H (tritium) and 4He
 Isomeric (metastable) state
• Excited nuclear state that exists for some time
• e.g 99mTc is an isomeric state of 99Tc
Nuclear Medicine Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students – Chapter 1 – Slide 111/101
NUCLEAR ARRANGEMENTS
ATOMIC MASS
ATOMIC NUMBER (Z) NUMBER (A) NEUTRON
ARRANGEMENTS
(Number of p+/e-) (Number of NUMBER
nucleon)
isotoPe Same Different Different
isobAr Different Same Different
isotoNe Different Different Same
isoMer
Same Same Same
(metastable)
QUESTION
 From the following list of atoms, pick out
those that are isotopes, isobars &
isotones
ANSWER
 Decay of radioactive parent P into unstable daughter D which in turn
decays into granddaughter G:
P D
P D G
P = parent
D = daughter
G = granddaughter
Radioactivity can be measured in
terms of:
 Activity (A) – number of nuclear
disintegration per unit time.
A= dN/dt = 1dps=1 Bq
 Half life(T1/2 ) – the time needed to
reduce original activity to ½
 T1/2 = ln 2/ λ = 0.693/ λ
 Decay constant (λ) – the probability that
an atom will disintegrate in a given time.
Λ = 0.693/ T1/2
Activity vs Half-life
Number of Half-life %Activity
Remaining
0 100
1 50
2 25
3 12.5
4 6.2
5 3.1
6 1.6
HALF-LIFE
 PHYSICAL HALF-LIFE (T1/2)

 BIOLOGICAL HALF-LIFE (Tb)
 EFFECTIVE HALF-LIFE (Te)
RADIOACTIVE/PHYSICAL
HALF-LIFE
 The time required for a quantity of
radioactivity to be reduced to one-half its
original value
 Every radioactive material has its own
unique half life value
 All radioactivity never disappears
 Quantity decreases but never reaches zero
• Formula: T1/2 = 0.693/λ
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
FORMULA
REMAINING ACTIVITY = ORIGINAL

ACTIVITY (0.5)n
n = number of half life
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
On Monday at 6 am in the
morning, 100 mCi of 99mTc is
present. How much will remain
on the same day at 12 noon?
SOLUTION
 Given:
 99mTc = 6 hrs (half life)
 Original activity = 100 mCi
 n = 1 (99mTc undergone one half life)
 Formula:
 Remaining Activity = Original Activity (0.5)n
 Solution:
 Remaining Activity = 100 mCi (0.5)1
 Remaining Activity = 50 mCi of 99Tc
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
How many half-lives are

required before a quantity of
radioactive material has decayed
to less than 1% of its original
value?
RADIOACTIVITY REMAINING
HALF LIFE
(T1/2)
in %age in fraction Quantity
0 100% 1 100 mCi
1 50% 1/2 50 mCi
2 25% 1/4 25 mCi
3 12.5% 1/8 12.5 mCi
4 6.25% 1/16 6.25 mCi
5 3.125% 1/32 3.125 mCi
6 1.56% 1/64 1.56 mCi
7 0.78% 1/128 0.78 mCi

ANSWER
SAMPLE ELEMENTS AND THEIR
HALF LIFE
ELEMENT HALF LIFE
99Tc 6 hours
131I 8 days
123I 13 hours
223Ra 11 days
226Ra 1600 years
14C 5730 years
192Ir 74 days
60Co 5.26 years
137Cs 30 years
90Sr 28 years
99Mo 66 hours
197Au 2.7 days
BIOLOGICAL HALF-LIFE (Tb)
 The time required for the body to

eliminate one-half of the dose of any
substances by biological processes
(perspiration, urine, feces, exhalation)
 Most radiopharmaceuticals are also
cleared from organs by various
physiologic processes
EFFECTIVE HALF-LIFE (Te)
 Encompasses both T1/2 and Tb

 Must always shorter than T1/2 & Tb
THE RELATIONSHIP
1/Te= 1/T1/2 + 1/Tb
What is the effective
half-life of Tc-99m?
Given: Tp= 6 hrs
Tb = 3 hrs
Te = TpTb/Tp + Tb = 6hr x 3hr/ 6hr + 3hr = 2hrs
100%
90% Exponential Decay Curve

80%
70%
60 %
50 %
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0 T1/2 1 T1/2 2T1/2 3 T1/2 4 T1/2 5 T1/2 6 T1/2 7 T1/2 8 T1/2
Modes of radioactive decay
 Radioactive decay is a process by which
unstable (radioactive) nuclei reach a more
stable configuration
 Radioactive decay processes
 Medically important
• Alpha (a) decay
• Beta (b) decay
 Beta plus decay
 Beta minus decay
 Electron capture
• Gamma (γ) decay
 Pure gamma decay
 Internal conversion
Slide 131/101
 Nuclear transformations are usually
accompanied by emission of energetic
particles (charged particles, neutral particles,
photons, neutrinos)
 Radioactive decay Emitted particles
 Alpha decay a particle
 Beta plus decay b+ particle (positron), neutrino
 Beta minus decay b- particle (electron), antineutrino
 Electron capture Neutrino
 Pure gamma decay Photon
 Internal conversion Orbital electron
ALPHA DECAY
 Symbol: α
 A: 4
 Charge: +2
 Results in:
 Decrease atomic number by
2 (Z – 2)
 Decrease atomic mass
number by 4 (A – 4)
 Decrease neutron
number by 2 (N – 2)
ALPHA PARTICLE
 Identical to a helium nucleus
 Consist of 2p+ & 2n0
 Heaviest and least penetrating form of radiation
 Emitted from the atomic nucleus
 Carries an electronic charge twice that of the proton
 High LET
 External source: little risk
 Internal source: high risk
 Ingestion
 Inhalation
 Wound
 Absorb by: paper
BETA MINUS DECAY
 Negatron decay
 Occurs in a neutron-rich
(proton deficient)
radionuclides
 1 neutron is converted into
1 proton
BETA PLUS DECAY
 Proton-rich
radionuclides are
produced by
 Accelerator
 Cyclotron 68Ga  68 Zinc + 0β+
• By adding charged- 31 30 +1
particle to stable nuclei
 Example:
 201Hg+deuteron  201Tl
ELECTRON CAPTURE
 K-capture
 An alternative to positron
decay for neutron-deficient
radionuclides
 Method of radioactive
decay that involves the
capture of an orbital
electron most likely in the
K or L-shell by its nucleus
ELECTRON CAPTURE
 Auger Process: the
process of removing
electron by a characteristic
x-rays within an atom
 Important Electron
Capture Radionuclides:
67Ga, 111In, 123I,201Tl & 57Co
 Emits x-rays, gamma rays or

both
 Produced in cyclotron
ISOMERIC TRANSITION
 Internal conversion
 A decay involving emission of gamma radiation
 A decay process that yields gamma radiation
without the emission or capture of a particle by
the nucleus
 Gamma rays:
 Emitted as the daughter nucleus undergoes an
internal rearrangement and transitions from the
excited state to a lower energy state (10-9 s)
ISOMERIC TRANSITION
 Metastable States (m):
 Excited or isomeric states
 Those with half-lives of exceeding a millisecond (10-3
s)
 Results in:
 No change in Z, A or neutron number
 Emission of gamma rays
 Emission of internal conversion electrons
 Emission of characteristic x-rays
 Emission of Auger electrons
 Example: 99mTc  99Tc + γ
ISOBARIC TRANSITION
 Modes of decay in which the mass number

remains constant
 Occurs in:
 Negatron decay
 Positron decay
 Electron capture
Interaction of Radiation with
Matter
2.1.
The interaction of photons and electrons, as they
traverse matter, are stochastic and obey the laws of
chance, although, with very different behaviour:
• Photons in general have none, one or a few

interactions and are exponentially attenuated
Photon interactions are expressed in terms of
cross-sections for individual interactions and
attenuation coefficients for passage through bulk media
• Electrons experience large numbers of interactions

and in general gradually lose energy until they are
stopped. This is expressed in terms of electron range
and material stopping powers
Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 143
Interaction of Radiation with
Matter
 Interaction of electrons with matter

 Coulomb interaction by collission with
orbital electrons
 Coulomb interaction with the nucleus
 Interaction of x-ray with matter

 Attenuated x-ray
 Transmitted x-ray
INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER
Energy loss by electrons
Ionizational or collisional losses Radiative losses or Bremsstrahlung
Principal process: Interaction with the electric field

collisions with other electrons of nuclei and be decelerated so
rapidly that some of its energy
Energy losses and the changes
in direction can be quite large may be radiated away
The electron which leaves the

collision with the most energy is
assumed to be the original
incident electron. This means the
maximum energy exchange is
half of the original energy
Energy lost by charged Stopping power
particles in passing
through matter is dT
generally described using S
a quantity called stopping dx
power S
Mass stopping power
dT is the loss in kinetic energy
S 1 dT

of the particle as it travels a
distance dx.  is the density of
the material
  dx
2.4
Ionizational (Collisional) Interactions and
Ionizational Stopping Power
This process involves collisions

between electrons travelling through
matter and electrons from atoms that
are part of the material, leaving the
atoms ionized
It is rather difficult to measure the rate of energy

lost by these interactions but is relatively easy to
calculate it. Relativity and Quantum Mechanics
must be used
Production of Characteristic X-rays
When an electron passes close to a nucleus it will
experience a substantial Coulomb force and will be
decelerated, radiating energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation (Bremsstrahlung)
The quantum mechanical solution is complicated and

approximations must be made, and the most
appropriate form for the result depends on the energy
range
The energy loss due to this process is quite

strongly dependent on the atomic number,
as can be seen by the Z2 term
Production of Bremsstrahlung
Radiation
X-ray emission spectrum
Factors Affecting X-Ray
Emission Spectrum
Factor Change Quality Quantity
Current x time Increase No change Increase

(mAs)
Voltage Increase Increase Increase

(kVp)
Filtration Increase Increase Decrease
Target Atomic Increase Increase Increase

number
Voltage ripple Increase Decrease Decrease
Factors Affecting X-Ray Emission Spectrum
mAs kVp
Filtration
Voltage
Generation
Factors Affecting Quantity and
Exposure
Factor increased Beam Quantity Image Receptor
Exposure
mAs Increased Increased

proportionately
kVp Increased Increased

geometrically
Distance Reduced geometrically Reduced
Filtration Reduced Reduced
Interaction of x-ray with matter
ATTENUATION
 The reduction in x-
ray intensity that
results from
absorption &
scattering
If = Ioe-µx
LINEAR ATTENUATION
COEFFICIENT (µ)
 A quantitative measurement of attenuation

per centimeter of absorber
 It tells how much attenuation we can
expect from a certain thickness of tissue
 µ = ΔN/ Ntotal
 Unit: cm-1 (1/cm)
Attenuation = reduction in intensity due to
absorption and scattering
Is = scatter
µx
If
Io
DIFFERENTIAL ABSORPTION
 Different degrees of
absorption in different
tissues
 Results: image
contrast & formation of
the x-ray image
Modes of X-ray Interaction
 Coherent Scatter
 Thomson
 Rayleigh
 Compton Effect
 Photoelectric Effect
 Pair Production
 Photodisintegration
X-RAY ENERGY INTERACT WITH
LOW-ENERGY
WHOLE ATOMS
X-RAYS
MODERATE-ENERGY
ELECTRONS
X-RAYS
HIGH-ENERGY
NUCLEUS
X-RAYS
IN DIAGNOSTIC X-RAY RANGE, THE

INTERACTIONS ARE MOST COMMONLY
WITH ORBITAL ELECTRONS
THOMSON COHERENT
SCATTERING
 J.J. Thompson
 Classical or Unmodified Scattering
 Occur at below 10 keV x-rays
 Low-energy x-ray photons interact with a
free electron with no ionization
 Little importance to diagnostic radiology
THOMSON SCATTERING
 Results:
 Only one electron is raised to a higher energy state
 Change in x-ray direction
 No change in its energy
 Scattered X-ray λ = Incident X-ray λ
 Scattered X-ray Energy = Incident X-ray Energy
COHERENT SCATTERING
RAYLEIGH SCATTERING
Low energy photons interact with more than
one electrons with no ionization.
In reality the photon is scattered collectively by

the atomic electrons which are not free, and
their proximity to one another is not very
different from the wavelength of the radiation
In coherent scattering essentially no energy is lost by the

photon as it transfers momentum to the atom and is
scattered through angle θ
The scattering by the different electrons is in phase and
the resultant angular distribution is determined by an
165
interference pattern which is characteristic of the atom
Elsevier items and derived items © 2009 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
TWO TYPES OF COHERENT
SCATTERING
 THOMSON SCATTERING
 Involves a single electron in the interaction
 RAYLEIGH SCATTERING
 Involves almost all of the electrons of the atom
in the interaction
COMPTON SCATTERING
 Dr. Arthur H. Compton
 Occurs when an incident x-ray photon
interacts with a loosely bound outer-
shell electron
 Compton/Secondary/Recoil Electron:
the ejected electron
COMPTON EFFECT
COMPTON EFFECT
 Energy: Ei = Es+ Eb + EKE
 Ei= incident x-ray energy
 Es = scattered x-ray energy
 Eb = electron binding energy
 EKE = electron kinetic energy
 Results:
 Change in x-ray direction
 Reduction of its energy
 Scattered X-ray λ > Incident X-ray λ
 Scatter X-ray Energy < incident x-ray Energy
COMPTON EFFECT
 Characteristics:
 The interaction that predominates in the
diagnostic x-ray range
 High-energy photon uses a portion of its
energy to eject an outer shell electron
 Production of low contrast image
COMPTON EFFECT
ADVANTAGE
 Supplemental density
 Decrease radiation exposure to the patient

(by decreasing mAs)
DISADVANTAGE
 Responsible for scattered radiation fog to the
image
 Poses radiation hazard to personnel
 Reduce the quality of radiographic image
(fog)
BACKSCATTER RADIATION
 X-rays scattered back in
the direction of the
incident x-ray beam
 Scattered photon is
deflected back toward
the source
 Responsible for the
cassette-hinge image
 Prevention: heavy metal
on cassette back cover
SCATTERED X-RAY ENERGY
 Majority: projected
in a forward
direction toward the
IR
 Dependent on the
initial energy of the
photon
 Directly proportional
SCATTERED X-RAY ENERGY
 Dependent on its
angle of deflection
from recoil electron
 0o deflection
• No energy is
transferred to recoil
electron
 ≥180o deflection
• Escattered < Eelectron
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
 The low-energy (low kVp) incident x-ray
interacts with the inner-shell (tightly-
bound) electron
 Photoelectron: an ejected electron
 Energy: Ei = Eb + EKE
 Ei= incident x-ray energy
 Eb = electron binding energy
 EKE = electron kinetic energy
 Results:
 Incident x-ray disappears
 Total x-ray absorption
 Production of secondary radiation
 Ion pair
• Photoelectron (ejected electron)
• Positive atom (deficient of one electron)
 Characteristics:
 Predominates in the lower energy ranges (25-45
keV) produced by 40-70 kVp
 Predominates when high Z elements are
introduced
 Low-energy x-ray photons gives up all its energy
ejecting an inner-shell electron
 Major contributor to patient dose
• Rationale: because all the photon energy is absorbed by
the patient
 Occurs in absorbers having high atomic number
 Production of high contrast image
ADVANTAGE
 No scattered radiation
 Produce good quality radiographic

image
DISADVANTAGE
 Increase radiation exposure to patient
PAIR PRODUCTION
 Occurs when incident x-ray > or equal
to 1.02 MeV x-rays
 The incident x-ray interacts with the
nuclear force field
 The energy of x-ray photon is converted into
matter
 Results:
 X-ray disappears
 Two electrons with opposite charge appear
(positron & negatron)
PAIR PRODUCTION
 Annihilation Process/Reaction: a
process wherein the mass of positron &
electron is converted to energy
(annihilation radiation)
 Electrons Energy: 0.51 MeV & 0.51 MeV
 Matter is converted back into energy
 Application:
 Nuclear medicine
 Useful in PET
 Note: does not occur during x-ray imaging

PHOTODISINTEGRATION
 An interaction between extremely high-
energy photon
 Occur at >10 MeV x-rays
 The incident x-ray interacts directly into the
nucleus
 Results:
 X-ray is absorbed by the nucleus
 Nucleon/nuclear fragment is emitted
 Note: Does not occur in diagnostic radiology
OCCUR INTERACTION
INTERACTION ENERGY RESULTS
AT WITH
W Change in x-ray
direction;
COHERENT LOW <10 keV Whole atom
No change in x-ray
energy
Change in x-ray
direction;
Outer-shell Reduced in x-ray
COMPTON
Electron energy;
Compton electron
MODERATE 30-150 keV
emitted
X-ray disappear;
Inner-shell
PHOTOELECTRIC Photoelectron
Electron
emitted
X-ray disappear;
Two electrons with
PAIR PRODUCTION 1.02 MeV Nucleus
opposite charge
appear
HIGH
X-ray absorbed in
the nucleus;
PHOTODISINTEGRATION 10 MeV Nucleus
Nuclear fragment
emitted
DIFFERENTIAL ABSORPTION
 Different degrees of
absorption in different
tissues
 Results: image
contrast & formation of
the x-ray image
Factors Affecting
Differential Absorption
 Higher atomic number (Z)
 PE absorption greater in absorbers with higher Z
 Compton scatter unaffected by Z number
 Increased kVp
 PE absorption decreases sharply
 Compton scatter remains proportionally greater
 Increased mass density
 PE absorption increases
 Compton scatter increases
How Increasing Factors Affect
Differential Absorption
Interacting x- Higher Atomic Higher Higher Mass
ray photons Number kVp Density
Photoelectrically
absorbed
Compton scatter Unaffected
Transmitted
x-rays
The X-ray Imaging System
X-Ray Imaging System
Control High voltage generator Xray

tube
-kVp selection
-mA Selection -Step-up transformer
-Rectification circuit -X-ray tube
-Time selection
-Filament circuit
Circuit Diagram of Imaging
System
BASIC X-RAY CIRCUIT
 MAIN X-RAY CIRCUIT
 Main breaker
 Exposure switch
 Autotransformer
 Timer circuit
 HV step-up transformer
 Rectification circuit
 FILAMENT CIRCUIT
 Filament circuit
 Filament step-down transformer
Circuit Sections
Control Console High Voltage X-Ray Tube
Circuit
 Line monitor
 Step-up transformer
 Autotransformer  Rectification circuit
 Line compensator  mA meter
 kVp selection  X-ray tube
 mA Selection
Filament Circuit
 Timing circuit
 Step-down transformer
 Time selection  Focal spot selection
 Filaments
MAIN X-RAY CIRCUIT
 Supplies the x-ray tube with properly

modified power
 Modifies the incoming-line power to
produce x-rays
 Permits the radiographer to adjust the
amperage, voltage and length of
exposure
EXPOSURE SWITCH
 Connected to the switch that activates
the rotating anode of the x-ray tube
 Two Step Button:
 Depressed halfway to activate the anode
rotation
 Depressed completely to initiate the x-ray
exposure
EXPOSURE SWITCH
 Must be depressed completely in one
motion
 Rationale: to extend x-ray tube life
 Must be of the dead-man type
 Rationale: to prevent exposure from
continuing when the operator enters the
radiation area
 Exposure Cord: minimum of 6 ft
TIMING CIRCUITS
 Intended to end the exposure at an

accurately measured, preset time
 Used to “make” & “break” the high
voltage across the x-ray tube
 Done on the primary side of the HVT
TYPES EXPOSURE TIMERS
 MECHANICAL
 SYNCHRONOUS
 ELECTRONIC
 mAs
 AEC
MECHANICAL TIMER
 Spring driven
 Applied to conventional dental and
portable x-ray units
 Inaccurate and limited timer range
SYNCHONOUS TIMER
 Synchronous motor
 A specialprecision device
 Used as timing mechanisms
 Purpose: to drive a shaft at precisely 60
rps
 Time Intervals: 1/60 s, 1/30 s, 1/20 s. .
.
 Cannot be used for serial exposures
ELECTRONIC TIMER
 Most common timers in use today
 Most accurate, most sophiticated, most
complicated
 Time Intervals: as short as 1 ms
 Used for rapid serial exposures
 Application: Interventional Radiology
mAs TIMER
 Monitors the product of mA & exposure
time on the secondary side of the HVT
 Used to provide highest safe tube current
for the shortest exposure
 Applications:
 Falling
load generator
 Capacitor discharge imaging system
AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE
CONTROL
 Automatic exposure devices or
phototimers
 A device that measures the quantity of
radiation that reaches the image
receptor
 Automatically terminates the exposure
once a predetermined quantity of x-ray
has penetrated the patient
TYPES OF AEC
 IONIZATION CHAMBER
 PHOTOTIMERS
IONIZATION
CHAMBER PHOTOTIMER
• X-ray tube • X-ray tube
1 1
• Useful beam • Useful beam

2 2
• Patient • Patient
3 3
• Remnant beam • Remnant beam

4 4
• Phototimer/Photomultiplier (fluorescent
• Ionization chamber screen)
5 5
• Predetermined quantity of ionization • Predetermined quantity of fluorescent light

6 6
• Exposure is terminated • Exposure is terminated

7 7
MINIMUM REACTION TIME
 Minimum response time
 The length of the shortest exposure
possible with a particular AEC
 Old Phototimers: 0.05 s or less
 Modern Ionization Chambers: <1 ms
 <MRT: radiograph will exhibit excessive
density)
MINIMUM REACTION TIME
• Common in: exposure that require very short
exposure time
 Using fast film screen combination
 Using high mA
 When imaging small or easily penetrated
body parts
• Compensation: decrease mA, not kVp
• Rationale: in order to leave contrast unaffected
BACKUP TIMER
• A device that
• Protects the patient from overexposure
• Protects the x-ray tube from overload
• ELECTRONIC/MANUAL TIMER:
• Used to set the backup time for AEC
• Should be set 1.5 times (150%) of the
expected manual exposure mAs
 600 mAs for above 50 kVp
 2000 mAs for below 50 kVp
THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN
USING AEC MODE
 Positioning must be accurate
 Rationale: To ensure proper functioning of
the photosensor
 Collimation must be adequate
 Rationale: inadequate field size can cause
premature termination of exposure due to
excessive scatter radiation
THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN
USING AEC MODE
 Optimal kVp selection
 Rationale: Excessive kVp can cause
premature termination of exposure
 May not respond properly at low kVp
(e.g mammography)
 A technique chart is recommended
 Rationale: To indicate the optimal kVp for
the part, the photocell that should be
selected & the back up time that should be
set
FILAMENT CIRCUIT
 Modifies the incoming-line power

 Supplies the filament of the x-ray tube
with properly modified power
 Creates the appropriate thermionically
emitted electron cloud at the filament
FILAMENT CIRCUIT
 Modifies the incoming-line power

 Supplies the filament of the x-ray tube
with properly modified power
 Creates the appropriate thermionically
emitted electron cloud at the filament
FILAMENT CIRCUIT
X-RAY TUBE
CURRENT
Number of
e- emitted
Filament by the
temperature filament
(thermionic
Filament emission)
current
(3-6 A)
Filament
transformer
THREE PARTS OF X-RAY
IMAGING SYSTEM
 OPERATING CONSOLE
 X-RAY TUBE
 HIGH VOLTAGE GENERATOR
OPERATING CONSOLE
 Most familiar to RT
 Provide controls for
 Tube current (mA)
 Tube voltage (kV)
• 5% variation
 Exposure time (s)
 Line compensation
(automatic)
 All connected circuit are
at low voltage
LINE COMPENSATOR
It measures the voltage

provided to the x-ray imaging
system and adjusts that
voltage to precisely 220 V
METERS
 kVp METER
 PREREADING kVp METER
 mA METER
kVp METER
 Reads voltage (not kVp)

 Location: output terminals of the
autotransformer
PREREADING kVp METER
 Allows the voltage to be monitored

before an exposure
 Found in most operating consoles
mA METER
 Monitors the x-ray tube current

 Location: connected at the center of the
secondary winding of the HV step-up
transformer
 Always at zero volts
 Rationale: ensures electrical safety
HIGH VOLTAGE GENERATOR
 Purpose: to increase the

output voltage from the
autotransformer to the
kVp necessary for x-ray
production
 Three Primary Parts:
 HV transformer
 Filament transformer
 Rectifiers
HIGH VOLTAGE GENERATOR
 VS is greater than VP
 NS is greater than NP
 IS is less than IP
 Turns Ratio: 500:1 or
1000:1
STEP UP
TRANSFORMER
 Increases voltage from
primary to secondary
while decreasing
milliamperage
 Turns ratio greater
than 1
 Steps up voltage
 Steps down current
Filament transformer
 A step down transformer which supplies
power to the filament
 Supplies 3-5 A of current and 10-15 V of
voltage to the filament to initiate
thermionic emission.
STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMER
FILAMENT TRANSFORMER
PRIMARY SECONDARY
SIDE SIDE
More turns Less turns
(thin copper) (thick copper)
High voltage Low voltage
(150 V) (12 V)
Low current High current
(0.5-1.0 A) (5-8 A)
TRANSFORMER LAW
 Voltage is directly proportional to the
number of turns
SAMPLE PROBLEM
 There are 125 turns on the

primary side of a transformer
and 90,000 turns on the
secondary side. If 110 V AC is
supplied to the primary winding,
what is the voltage induced in
the secondary winding?
TRANSFORMER LAW
 Current is inversely proportional to the
voltage & number of turns
SAMPLE PROBLEM
 The primary side of a filament

transformer has 1000 turns
while the secondary side has
500 turns. What is the filament
current if the current through
the primary winding is 2 A?
AMPLITUDE
VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION
 Purpose: required to ensure that the
electrons flow from x-ray tube cathode
to anode only
 Rectifiers: one way electrical devices
 Accomplished with diodes
DIODE
 Vacuum tube with two electrodes
 Allows electron to flow in only one direction
 Valve Tube (Vacuum Tube Rectifier):
 Earlier diode rectifier
 No longer used
 Solid-state Semiconductor Diodes:
 Most commonly used
 Si, Se & Ge
 Semiconductive materials
SOLID STATE
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
 Composed of p-type
and n-type
 p-type
 No electrons
 Have spaces (holes)
• Positively charged
 Attracts the electrons
 Holes: as mobile as
electrons
SOLID STATE
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
 n-type
 Have loosely bound
electrons
 Free to move
 Electron Flow: from

the n to the p side
 Conventional
Electrical Current:
moves from p to the n
side
Voltage waveforms
VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION
 SINGLE-PHASE GENERATOR
 HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
 THREE-PHASE GENERATOR
 THREE-PHASE 6 PULSE
 THREE-PHASE 12 PULSE
 HIGH FREQUENCY GENERATOR

SINGLE-PHASE GENERATOR
 Permits the potential difference to drop

to zero with every change in the
direction of the current flow
 Symbol: 1ɸ
 100 voltage ripple
HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
 Self-rectification (early
radiography)
 The voltage is not
allowed to swing
negatively during the
negative half of its cycle
 Diodes: 0, 1 or 2
 60 pulses/second
HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
 Disadvantages:
 It wastes half the
supply of power
 It requires twice the
exposure time
FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
 The negative half-cycle

corresponding to the
inverse voltage is
reverse
 Diodes: at least 4
 120 pulses/second
 Advantage:
 Exposure time reduced in
half
THREE-PHASE GENERATOR
 The voltage impressed

across the x-ray tube
is nearly constant
 Symbol: 3ɸ
THREE-PHASE 6-PULSE
 6 pulses/1/60 second
 Diodes: 6
 Symbol: 3ɸ 6P
 13-25% voltage ripple
 Produces 35% more
average photon energy
than full-wave
THREE-PHASE 12-PULSE
 12 pulses/1/60 second
 Diodes: 12
 Symbol: 3ɸ 12P
 Produces 40% more
average photon energy
than full-wave
THREE-PHASE POWER
 Advantages:
 Voltage nearly constant
& never drops to zero
during exposure
 Disadvantages:
 Its size & cost (due to
limitation of initiation &
extinction time)
HIGH FREQUENCY
GENERATOR
 It produces a nearly
constant potential
voltage waveform
 500-25,000 pulse/sec
 Uses inverter circuit
HIGH FREQUENCY
GENERATOR
 Advantages:
 Much smaller
 Less costly
 More efficient than 60-
Hz HVG
 Near constant potential
voltage waveforms
 Improves image quality
at lower patient
radiation dose
FACTOR ADJUSTMENT
VOLTAGE
kVp mAs
RECTIFICATION
Single Phase 100 15
10
Three Phase 6-pulse
88 or 90 (2/3 of the original value)
(12% or 10 kVp
reduction) 7.5
Three Phase 12-pulse
(1/2 of the original value)
<7.5
84 or 88
(<1/2 of the original
High Frequency (16% or 12 kVp
value)
reduction
GENERATOR POWER
RATING
 Determined by the greatest load the

generator is capable of sending the x-ray
tube
 Transformer & HV generator: identified
by their power rating
 Measured in kilowatts (kW)
GENERATOR POWER
RATING
 HV generator: 30-50 kW
 Interventional: 150 kW
 Formula:
 Singlephase = (0.7 x mA x kVp)/1000
 3-phase & HF = (mA x kVp)/1000
HEAT UNITS
SINGLE-PHASE
 HU = kVp x mA x s
THREE-PHASE 6 PULSE
 HU = 1.35 x kVp x mA x s
THREE-PHASE 12 PULSE
HIGH FREQUENCY
SAMPLE PROBLEM
 Calculate the heat units generated
for the following exposures.
Single-phase, rectified unit: 250
mA, 0.7 seconds, and 200 kVp?
 In three-phase 6-pulse?
 In high frequency generator?

Solution
 Single phase
HU = kVp x mA x s
HU = 200 kVp x 250 mA x 0.7 sec
= 200,000 volts x 250/1000 A x 0.7 s
= 35,000 HU
 3 phase, 6 pulse, full wave
HU = 1.35 x kVp x mA x s = 1.35 x 35,000
= 47,250 HU
• HF generator
HU = 1.45 x kVp x mA x s = 1.45 x 35,000= 50,750HU

Chapter 01

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Chapter 01

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Concepts of Radiologic

- start of modern radiology

 Michael Pupin – demonstrated the use

 The primary distinguishing characteristic of

A body at rest will remain at rest and a body

 The force that an object exerts under the

 The capacity to do work

 States that mass and

Electromagnetic wave Particulate

 No charge  Has charge

 Characterized instead  Has kinetic energy

Electromagnetic radiation Particulate radiation

rest mass of electron = 9.109 ×10-31 kg

rest energy of electron = 511 keV =

Cosmic rays Medical

They are characterized by their:

Electromagnetic spectrum as a function of:

n (Hz = s-1) is the frequency of electromagnetic wave

In diagnostic radiology the photon energy is usually expressed in units

 One common property of EME

 Equals to the speed of light (c)

What is the frequency of a

Proton (p) +1.602×10-19 938.28

Neutron (n) 0 939.57

Radius of an atom ≈ 0.1 nm

LOCATION Orbital shell Nucleus Nucleus

MASS Lightest - Heaviest

Negative Positive Neutral

They are bound in the nucleus with the strong force

The strong force between two nucleons is a very

 Used when precession is not required

Atomic weight definition means that Ar grams of

The mass of a molecule is the sum of the masses of the

NA: Avogadro constant, Z : atomic number

 DEMOCRITUS – ATOM IS THE SMALLEST PARTICLE OF

 ARISTOTLE – THE FOUR CORE ELEMENTS COULD BE

 TORRICELLI – SHOWED THAT AIR CAN PUSH LIQUID

PRIESTLY – ESTABISHED THE FACT THAT SUBSTANCE

LAVOISIER – DISCOVERED WATER WHEN HYDROGEN

DALTON – INTRODUCED THE FIRST MODERN ATOMIC

 Atoms of a given element are identical; atoms of

 Chemical reactions involve the combination of atoms,

 When elements react to form compounds, they react in

 Travels in a straight path from cathode to anode

-this tiny sub atomic

Thomson introduced the

Rutherford’s atomic model is based on results of the

• negatively charged electrons

For example, it could not explain the observed

Visible lines of emission spectrum for Hydrogen

Bohr Postulated that

MAXIMUM ELECTRONS PER SHELL

 n = shell number (principal quantum

 Number of electrons in the outermost

 Number of shells occupied by electrons

 The force that

 The force that

 The strength of attachment of an electron to

• an atom emits radiation when an electron ni Ei

• the principal quantum number, n, which can take integer values

The energy levels associated with n = 1, 2, 3 etc.

One cannot predict simultaneously the exact location and

Pauli Exclusion Principle