Program Studi Teknik Elektro 1

Universitas Udayana
Oscillators are very useful in practical applications, for instance, to
keep time, or to focus energy in a system.

All oscillators operate along the same

principle: they are systems that can store
energy in more than one way and
exchange it back and forth between the
different storage possibilities. For instance,
in pendulums (and swings) one exchanges
energy between kinetic and potential form.

That coils and capacitors are devices that can store

electromagnetic energy. In one case it is stored in a
magnetic field, in the other in an electric field.
2
A MECHANICAL OSCILLATOR
1 1
Etot  Ekin  E pot Etot  m v 2  k x 2
2 2

dEtot 1  dv  1  dx  dx
 0  m 2v   k  2 x  v
dt 2  dt  2  dt  dt

dv d 2x Newton’s law
m k x 0 m 2 k x 0 F=ma!
dt dt
k
Solution : x(t )  x0 cos( t  0 ) 
m

x0 : amplitude
 : frequency
0 : phase 3
 AN ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATOR
Capacitor initially charged. Initially, current is zero, energy is
all stored in the capacitor.

A current gets going, energy gets split between the capacitor

and the inductor.

Capacitor discharges completely, yet current keeps going. Energy

is all in the inductor.

The magnetic field on the coil starts to collapse, which will

start to recharge the capacitor.

Finally, we reach the same state we started with (with

opposite polarity) and the cycle restarts.
4
 ELECTRIC OSCILLATORS: THE MATH
2
1 2 1q
Etot  Emag  Eelec Etot  L i 
2 2C

dEtot 1  di  1  dq  dq
 0  L 2i    2q  i
dt 2  dt  2C  dt  dt
 di  1
0  L   q  (the loop rule!)
 dt  C
d 2q q Compare with: d 2x
0L 2  m 2 k x 0
dt C dt
Analogy between electrical
and mechanical oscillations:

x(t )  x0 cos( t  0 ) q  q0 cos( t  0 )

qx 1/ C  k
k
iv LM  
1
m LC 5
 ELECTRIC OSCILLATORS: THE MATH
1.5
q  q0 cos( t  0 )
dq
1
i   q0 sin(  t  0 )
0.5
Charge
dt
0
Current
Time
1 2 1 2 2 2
-0.5
Emag  Li  L q0 sin ( t  0 )
-1
2 2 2
-1.5
1q 1 2
Eele   q0 cos 2 ( t  0 )
2C 2C
1.2

1
And rememberin g that,
0.8 1
0.6
Energy in capacitor cos x  sin x  1, and  
2 2

0.4
Energy in coil LC
0.2
1 2
0 Etot  Emag  Eele  q0
Time 2C
The energy is constant and equal to what we started with. 6
7
 The oscillator parameter is the quantity that repeats.
 In the examples, the oscillator parameter has units of sound
intensity, light intensity, dollars, and pressure, respectively.

 Question: Is the x-component of the electric field, at a

particular location in space, an oscillator? If not, why not? If so,
what are the units of the oscillation parameter?

8
The period (denoted T, measured in seconds) is the time
required for one cycle.

9
The amplitude (A) of the oscillation is the maximum value of the
oscillation parameter, measured relative to the average value of
that parameter.

10
Many naturally occurring oscillators are of the class called
resonators. They oscillate freely at one particular frequency. This
kind of oscillation is called simple harmonic motion.

11
 x

For a free resonator, the oscillator parameter

varies sinusoidally and can be expressed as
x(t) = x 0 cos( t   )

12
 Some definitions for simple harmonic motion.

x(t )  x0 cos( t   )  amplitude function

x0  amplitude
 t    phase
  phase angle or phase constant

13
The oscillator parameter repeats itself
every time the phase  t +   changes by 2 .
This happens every time t changes by one period (T)
2
t =  T

1 
The frequency of the motion is f  
T 2
expressed in units of Hertz = oscillations per s
The phase changes at the rate  radians per s.
This is called the circular frequency or angular
frequency.

14
x 0 cos( )

The phase constant  specifies the oscillator

parameter at t = 0.

x(0)  x0 cos( 0   )  x0 cos( )

15
16
 dx
v     x0 cos( t   )
dt
v varies from -  x0 to +  x0
17
 EXAMPLE 1 : TUNING A RADIO RECEIVER

FM radio stations: frequency

is in MHz.
The inductor and
capacitor in my car radio 1
are usually set at L = 1 
mH & C = 3.18 pF. Which LC
is my favorite FM station? 
1
rad / s
110 6  3.18 10 12
(a) QLSU 91.1  5.61108 rad / s
(b) WRKF 89.3 
f 
(c) Eagle 98.1 WDGL 2
 8.93 107 Hz
 89.3MHz 18
 EXAMPLE 2
 In an LC circuit,
L = 40 mH; C = 4 mF 1 1
 

rad / s
 At t = 0, the current is a LC 16x10 8

maximum;
•  = 2500 rad/s
 When will the capacitor • T = period of one complete cycle
be fully charged for the = 2/ = 2.5 ms
• Capacitor will be charged after 1/4 cycle
first time? i.e at t = 0.6 ms

1.5

0.5
Charge
0
Current
Time
-0.5

-1

-1.5
19
 EXAMPLE 3
 In the circuit shown, the
switch is in position “a” for a 1 mH
E=10 V
long time. It is then thrown to 1 mF
position “b.”
a
 Calculate the amplitude of the b
resulting oscillating current.

i   q0 sin(  t  0 )
• Switch in position “a”: charge on cap = (1 mF)(10 V) = 10 mC
• Switch in position “b”: maximum charge on C = q0 = 10 mC
• So, amplitude of oscillating current =

1
q0  (10mC )  0.316 A
(1mH )(1mF )
20
 EXAMPLE 4
In an LC circuit, the maximum current is 1.0 A.
If L = 1mH, C = 10 mF what is the maximum charge on
the capacitor during a cycle of oscillation?

q  q0 cos( t  0 )
dq
i   q0 sin(  t  0 )
dt
Maximum current is i0=q0  q0=i0/

Angular frequency =1/LC=(1mH 10 mF)-1/2 = (10-8)-1/2 = 104 rad/s

Maximum charge is q0=i0/ = 1A/104 rad/s = 10-4 C

21
 DAMPED LC OSCILLATOR
Ideal LC circuit without resistance:
C
oscillations go on for ever;  = L
(LC)-1/2 R
Real circuit has resistance,
dissipates energy: oscillations 2 Rt
Q 
die out, or are “damped” U max  e L
1.0
Math is complicated! Important 2C
points: 0.8

 Frequency of oscillator shifts away 0.6

from  = (LC)-1/2
 Peak CHARGE decays with time UE 0.4

constant = 2L/R 0.2

 For small damping, peak ENERGY
0.0
decays with time constant = L/R 0 4 8 12 16 20

time (s)
22
 Capacitor and inductor combination produces an electrical
oscillator, natural frequency of oscillator is w=1/LC
 Total energy in circuit is conserved: switches between
capacitor (electric field) and inductor (magnetic field).
 If a resistor is included in the circuit, the total energy decays (is
dissipated by R).

23
 Generally speaking, the oscillator produces sinusoidal and
other waveforms
 An oscillator is any measurable quantity capable of repetition.
Examples:
 Volume of a loudspeaker
 Brightness of a bulb
 Amount of money in a bank account
 The air pressure near your eardrum

24
 electronic system
 comprises active and passive circuit elements and sinusoidal
produces repetitive waveforms at the output without the
application of a direct external input signal to the circuit.
 converts the dc power from the source to ac power in the load
 A rectifier circuit converts ac to dc power, but an oscillator
converts dc noise signal/power to its ac equivalent.
 The general form of a harmonic oscillator is an electronic
amplifier with the output attached to a narrow-band electronic
filter, and the output of the filter attached to the input of the
amplifier.

25
26