Wind loading and structural response

Lecture 23 Dr. J.D. Holmes

Antennas and open-frame

structures
 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Antennas - isolated structures - radio telescopes and microwave

antennas
• Antennas - attached to towers - aerodynamic interference

• Single frames

• Multiple frames

• Lattice towers

Common feature : aerodynamic interference between various elements - e.g.

antennas and supporting tower or other antennas, members of a frame
 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Radio telescope

• Paraboloid dish

Focus
 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Radio telescope

• Paraboloid dish

2f

Normal to dish surface intersects axis at 2  focal length

d
Approximate center of aerodynamic forces e  2f 
2

e
 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Radio telescope

• Paraboloid dish

FY
d
FX
e

b
Wind

Fy force generates significant moments about dish supports

 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Radio telescope

• Paraboloid dish
0.10
Focus
Total Azimuth
0.08 moment angle,
135o
Zenith
Effect of
angle b 0.06 boundary
CM Altitude layer
moment profile
0.04

0.02 Azimuth
moment
Wind
Altitude
axis 0
Azimuth 0 20 40 60 80 90
a angle Zenith angle, degrees
PLAN VIEW
M
CM  2
2 ρ a U h Ab
1
 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Microwave dish antenna

• Impermeable dish 2.0

D( )
C D ( )  1.5 b
2 ρa U A
1 2


1.0

0.5
A = (b2/4) 1% turbulence
(projected area) 10% turbulence
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

 (degrees)
Small effect of turbulence
 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Microwave dish antenna

• Interference factor Da WIND

D D
K  e t
i Da
Dt
WIND

De  D  K .Da
t i

De WIND
 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Microwave dish antenna

• Interference factor
Experimental data
Equation with t=0.5

Interference factor
 1.5

0.5

0
0 45 90 135 180
Wind direction (degrees)

Ki = exp [-k(CD  )2]. [(1+t) + t cos 2( - d - 90)]

 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Cell-phone antenna

• isolated panels

Cd (ref.b)  0.8
Cd 1.1

120O
b
 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Cell-phone antenna

• grouped panels

combined combined
Cd (ref.b)  1.1 Cd (ref.b)  0.9

~2b

grouping gives large reduction in total drag

 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Cell-phone antenna

• grouped panels

60o
0o

total drag of group : about 30% less than sum of individual elements
 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Open frames • Single frame. Two-dimensional. Normal wind

• sharp-edged members
2.0

CD

1.0

0 0.5 1.0
Solidity ratio, 
solidity = ‘solid’ area of frame/total enclosed area
reference area for drag coefficient = ‘solid’ area of frame

drag coefficient relatively independent of details of member arrangement

 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Open frames • Single frame. Two-dimensional. Normal wind

2.0

CD

1.0

0 0.5 1.0
Solidity ratio, 
at low solidity, members act as individual elements

at high solidity, frame acts as a solid plate (Lecture 8)

intermediate solidity : aerodynamic interference between members CD  1.6
 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Open frames • Pairs of frames. Two-dimensional. Normal wind

b
s

CD(2) = CD(1) [ 1 + 2]

1 CD(1) is drag coefficient of upstream frame

(downstream frame influences upstream frame)

2 CD(1) is drag coefficient of downstream frame

δ  0.45
s
approximately, 1  1, ψ 2  1  δ 0.45   0 <  < 0.5
b

For circular members, equivalent solidity to calculate 2 , e  1.2 1.75

 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Open frames
spacing/width = 1.0
• 3 frames in series. Solidity = 0.1

X( α )
C X (α ) 
N

2 ρa U A
1 2

spacing/width = 0.1
X(a) = force normal to frame

A = projected area of one frame at

0o angle of attack

15 75
angle of attack, a
 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Open frames

• 3 frames in series. Solidity = 0.5 spacing/width = 1.0

X( α )
C X (α ) 
N

2 ρa U A
1 2

spacing/width = 0.1
A = projected area of one frame at
0o angle of attack

Maximum CXN at 30o to 45o

15 75
angle of attack, a
 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Open frames

• 10 frames in series. Solidity = 0.1 spacing/width = 1.0

X( α )
C X (α ) 
N

2 ρa U A
1 2

spacing/width = 0.1
A = projected area of one frame at
0o angle of attack

15 75
angle of attack, a
 Antennas and open-frame structures
spacing/width = 1.0
• Open frames

• 10 frames in series. Solidity = 0.5

X( α )
C X (α ) 
N

2 ρa U A
1 2

A = projected area of one frame at

0o angle of attack
spacing/width = 0.1
Maximum CXN at 30o to 45o
15 75
angle of attack, a
 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Open frames

• Design method :
‘Wind loads and anchor bolt design for petrochemical facilities’ (ASCE)

Needs more wind tunnel studies for pipe racks etc.

 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Drag coefficients for lattice tower (Lecture 21)

Square cross section with flat-sided members (wind normal to face)
4.0

Drag 3.5
coefficient
CD (=0O) 3.0 Australian
Standards
2.5
CD = 4.2 - 7 (for 0.1< < 0.2)
2.0
CD = 3.5 - 3.5 (for 0.2< < 0.5)
1.5

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6

Solidity Ratio 
0.8 1.0
(ASCE-7 : CD = 4.02 – 5.9 +4.0 )

 = solidity of one face = area of members  total enclosed area

includes interference and shielding effects between members

 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Drag coefficients for lattice tower

Triangular cross section with flat-sided members

CD = 3.5 - 4 (for 0.1< < 0.3)

CD = 2.9 – 2 (for 0.3<  < 0.5)

(ASCE-7 : CD = 3.42 – 4.7 +3.4 )

 Antennas and open-frame structures

• Drag coefficients for lattice tower

Cross section with circular members

depends on Reynolds Number

for super-critical flow - Cd for cross section ~ 0.5 times that for
equivalent sharp-edged tower with same solidity

some members may be in super-critical flow - others in sub-critical flow

 End of Lecture 23

John Holmes
225-405-3789 JHolmes@lsu.edu