Virus particle or virion.

An infectious agent composed

of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA )

A protein shell ( capsid) in

some cases a lipid envelop

They have full capacity for replication when a

susceptible target cell is encountered.
Capsid and capsomeres

The protein coat that

surrounds the viral nucleic
acid.

This is composed of repeating

protein subunits called
capsomeres.

They have either helical or icosahedral

symmetry.
Nucleocapsid

The complete protein-nucleic

acid complex.
 Satellite or Defective Viruses.
Viruses which require a second virus (helper
virus) for replication.

Hepatitis delta virus is the major human

pathogen example.

It requires the presence of hepatitis B virus to complete its

replication cycle.
The genome can be classified in 7 classes
 Key elements of the virus host interaction
are:
Viral strain

Inoculum size

Route of exposure

Susceptibility of host

pre-existent immunity
from past exposure or
vaccination

Immune status and

age of host.
 VIRUS
skin, mucous membranes, respiratory
tract, gastrointestinal tract, via a
transfusion or transplanted organ or via
maternal-fetal transmission.
HOST
pathology at the skin or mucous
membrane surface – e.g., herpes
simplex virus, human papillomavirus.

LOCAL REPLICATION
peripheral nerve routes to ganglia (e.g.,
herpes simplex virus) central nervous
system (e.g., rabies virus). bloodstream
free in plasma (e.g., picornaviruses);
SYSTEMIC SPREAD
control and downregulate the viral
replicative process.

HOST IMMUNE RESPONSE

The net result of this interaction may be:

No infection
Abortive infection with limited viral
replication

Asymptomatic infection
Symptomatic infection

Depending upon the agent and the immune

status of the host, persistent/latent or
self-limited infection.
Viruses may cause chronic, persistent
infection with continuous viral replication
HIV, hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus.

Viruses may be able to cause latent

infection
Latency is characterized by a quiescent or minimally
transcriptionally active viral genome with periods of
reactivation

Herpesviruses (cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, herpes

simplex virus, varicella-zoster virus)

Human papillomavirus, human retroviruses.

Viruses are associated with human cancers

Epstein-Barr virus with lymphoma, nasopharyngeal

carcinoma and leiomyosarcoma

Herpesvirus 8 with Kaposi’s sarcoma and body cavity B-

cell lymphoma

Hepatitis B and C viruses with hepatocellular carcinoma

Human papillomavirus with cervical cancer and

anogenital carcinoma.
Innate and Adaptive Immunity
Macrophages and Neutrophils

Complement System

opsonize pathogens and induce a series

of inflammatory responses that help
to fight infection.
Dendritic Cells
bone-marrow-derived leucocytes that
are specialised antigen-presenting
cells capable of stimulating a primary
T-lymphocyte response to specific
antigen
Natural killer cells.

Found predominantly in blood, liver, spleen and lung

Lacks antigen specific receptor

Lymphocytes that do not resemble T

or B cells

Ability to destroy tumor cells and cell

infected virus
Adaptive (specific) immunity
The humoral or antibody mediated response
The cellular or cell mediated response
The diagnosis of viral infections relies first on
the recognition of a distinct clinical syndrome

Second consideration is the knowledge of the

appropriate specimens to send to the
laboratory (blood, body fluids, lesion scraping,
tissue) to diagnose a particular infection

One general point to remember is that the

isolation of viruses relies on the use of
proper viral transport medium and quick
delivery to the laboratory.
Antigen detection ( Flourescent or Enzyme
Immunoassay
Body fluids (e.g., respiratory tract for
respiratory viruses)
Blood (e.g., cytomegalovirus)
Lesion scrapings (e.g, for herpes simplex
virus or varicella-zoster virus)

Antibody detection

IgM antibody detection can assist with

acute diagnosis
Four-fold rises in IgG specific antibody or
conversion from seronegative status to
seropositive status can secure a diagnosis
PCR amplification and/or nucleic acid
Laboratory version of DNA replication in cells using
test tubes
Use to amplify specific region of DNA (gene) in order
to make a huge number of copies of the gene to be
adequately tested

Isolation of virus in tissue culture,

animals, embryonated eggs

A specific cytopathic effect or induction of a

characteristic function (e.g., hemagglutination) can
indicate the growth of viruses in tissue culture.
Examination of tissue samples by light
microscopy
cytopathology and antigen detection
by immunohistochemical staining
Using inclusion bodies

Examination of body fluids or tissues by

electron microscopy

dependent upon sufficient

numbers of virions being
present to permit detection.
Screening of blood

prevention of transmission of HIV, hepatitis B,

hepatitis C and in certain transplant situations,
cytomegalovirus.

Safe sexual practices

prevention of HIV, hepatitis B and human

papillomavirus infections.
 Vaccines
prevention of life threatening
viral infections
most significant advances in
human health

Eradication of smallpox is the hallmark example

of the effectiveness of a viral vaccine.
Effective vaccines
Polio hepatitis B
Mumps varicella-zoster
Measles rabies,
Rubella adenovirus,
Influenza Japanese B encephalitis
hepatitis A yellow fever.
Immune Globulin

can prevent or ameliorate clinical disease due

to certain viral agents

Varicella-zoster immune globulin for exposure

in immune compromised hosts

Rabies immune globulin (administered with

rabies vaccine) following an exposure

Cytomegalovirus immune globulin for

transplant recipients,

Respiratory syncytial virus immune globulin

Immune serum globulin for hepatitis A.
Antiviral therapy

Herpes simplex virus, varicella-zoster virus ( acyclovir)

Cytomegalovirus ( ganciclovir)

HIV ( antiretroviral drugs ),

Hepatitis C ( ribavirin).

Hepatitis B ( interferon . Lamivudine)

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (ribavirin)

Influenza virus (oseltamivir)