Genetics and Cellular Function

Chapter 4
 Themes
• DNA and RNA—The Nucleic Acids
• Genes and Their Action

4-2
DNA: A Polymer of Deoxynucleotides
Adenine NH2

N C
C N
Figure 4.1a
• Each nucleotide consists of HC
N
H
C
N
CH

– One sugar: deoxyribose HO

O
P O CH2 O

Deoxyribose
– One phosphate group OH
H H H H

– One nitrogenous base: G, C, A, or T Phosphate

OH H

O
• Purines: double ring
N
NH2 Purines CH
N C C
CH
C C HN C NH
N C NH
C N
• Pyrimidines: single ring C
H
N
NH2

Adenine (A) Guanine (G)

Figure 4.1b
Pyrimidines
NH2 CH3 O
H
C C C C
HC N HC NH
N C N C
H H
O O
Cytosine (C) Thymine (T)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
4-3
 DNA Structure
• Molecular shape is a double helix
– backbone of phosphate groups
alternating with deoxyribose
– Rungs between the backbones are
T
G C
A pairs of nitrogenous bases
A T
G

T
C

A
– Always pairs 1 purine to 1 pyrimidine
G
A
C
T – Hydrogen bonds
C G
Hydrogen
bonds A T • Law of complementary base pairing
– one strand determines the base
T

G C
sequence of other
T A

G C

Sugar–phosphate
Figure 4.2 backbone
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
4-4
 What Is a Gene?

• An information-containing segment of DNA that

codes a molecule of RNA that plays a role in
synthesizing one or more proteins

4-5
Figure 3.34 Simplified scheme of information flow from the DNA gene to mRNA to protein structure during
transcription and translation.
Nuclear
envelope

DNA
Transcription

RNA Processing Pre-mRNA

mRNA

Nuclear
pores
Ribosome
Translation

Polypeptide

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Protein Processing and Secretion
• Proteins in the cytosol made on free ribosomes in the cytosol
• Proteins destined for packaging into lysosomes or secretion
from the cell are
assembled on rER
– Polypeptide is built 1 Protein formed by
ribosomes on rough ER.
into the rER lumen 2 Protein packaged into transport

– Sent to Golgi for final

vesicle, which buds from ER.

3 Transport vesicles fuse into clusters that

modification & Nucleus unload protein into Golgi complex.

packaging 4 Golgi complex modifies

protein structure.

– 2 ° & 3 ° structure 5 Golgi vesicle containing

finished protein is formed.

– exocytosis 6 Secretory vesicles

release protein by
exocytosis.
Ribosomes

Golgi
complex

Rough ER

Figure 4.11
Lysosome
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

4-7
 Genes are turned on or off as needed
Prolactin 1 Casein
7
Prolactin
receptors Exocytosis
Ex: Lactation
Secretory
1. Prolactin binds to receptors- ATP Vesicles

trigger a transcription activator ADP

+
6
2. Activator binds casein gene in 2
Pi

nucleus
3. RNA Pol binds casein gene and Regulatory
transcribes it protein
(transcription
activator)
4. The casein mRNA is translated
5
5. Golgi complex packages it 3

6. Casein is released by 4
mRNA
exocytosis; used to make milk for casein

Casein RNA
gene polymerase

Figure 4.12
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Synthesizing Compounds Other Than Proteins

• Cells synthesize glycogen, fat, steroids,

phospholipids, pigments, and other compounds
– No genes for these (not proteins)
– Indirect gene control via enzymes (proteins)

• Ex: testosterone production

– A cell of the testes takes in cholesterol and convert it to
testosterone the genes for those enzymes are activate

4-9
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for
reproduction or display.
Interstitial cell of testis

DNA
1
When testosterone is
needed, luteinizing
DNA codes for mRNA
hormone stimulates (transcription).
production of a 2nd
From pituitary 3
messenger within the
cell.
mRNA
2
In the cytoplasm, mRNA codes
Translation for the synthesis of an enzyme
2nd
messenger (translation).
Luteinizing Enzyme
hormone
CH3 4 The 2nd messenger activates the dormant
enzyme. OH
CH3
CH3
Activated
enzyme
Secreted
5 Testosterone is
HO
The enzyme 6
Cholesterol converts O secreted from the
Testosterone cell and exerts
cholesterol various anatomical,
to testosterone. physiological, and
behavioral effects.
 Cell Cycle: From 1 Division to the Next
• Interphase: Time between divisions
– G1 phase: The first gap phase
• Accumulates materials needed to
replicate DNA
– S phase: Synthesis phase
• DNA replication occurs G2
Second gap phase
G1
First gap phase
Growth and preparation Growth and normal
• Duplicates centrioles for mitosis metabolic roles

– G2 phase: Second gap phase S

• Finishes centriole duplication Synthesis phase

DNA
replication
• Synthesizes enzymes that control
cell division Interphase

• Repairs DNA replication errors

 Cell cycle duration varies
– G0 (G zero) phase: Cells that between cell types
have stopped dividing
• Specialized cells like nerve cells
Figure 4.15

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

4-11
4-12
Cell Division:
M phase (Mitotic phase)
Cytokinesis
• Type of cell division in all body cells except eggs & sperm
(Meiosis)
• Functions of mitosis
– Development of the individual from one
fertilized egg to ~ 40 trillion cells
– Growth
G2 G1
– Replacement of cells that die Second gap phase
Growth and preparation
First gap phase
Growth and normal
for mitosis metabolic roles
– Repair of damaged tissues
• Four phases
S
Synthesis phase
DNA
replication

• Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,

Interphase
Telophase: PMAT

4-13
 The Timing of Cell Division

Cells divide when:

• enough cytoplasm for two daughter cells
• replicated their DNA
• adequate supply of nutrients
• stimulated by growth factor
• Cell density

Cells stop dividing when:

• They snugly contact neighboring cells (contact inhibition)
• Nutrients or growth factors are withdrawn

4-14
 Cancer
• Benign tumor
– Slow growth; contained in fibrous capsule; will not
metastasize; usually easy to treat
• Malignant tumor
– Fast growing
– Capable of metastasis: Giving off cells that seed the
growth of multiple tumors elsewhere

• Tumor angiogenesis: In-growth of blood vessels

stimulated by energy-hungry tumors

4-15
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Describe the structure of DNA and relate this to its
function.
– Explain how DNA and proteins are organized to form the
chromosomes.
– Describe the types of RNA, their structural and functional
differences, and how they compare with DNA.
– Give a working definition of the gene.
– Define genetic code and describe how DNA codes for
protein structure.
– Understand terms base triplets, codon, anticodon,
nucelosome, histone proteins, chromosome, sister
chromatids
– Describe ways a gene can be turned on or off.
– Explain benign and malignant cancer, causes and effects
4-16