Stainless steel

Presented by ,
Dr. Pragati Jain
1st year
 Contents
• Introduction
• History
• Terminology
• Structure
• Classification
• Composition
• Manufacture
• Properties
• Heat treatment
• Annealing
• Soldering
• welding
• Uses
 Introduction
In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox
steel or inox , derived from French word inoxydable
(inoxidizable), is a steel alloy with a minimum of
10.5% chromium content by mass

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon and other elements

The carbon content of steel is between 0.002% and

2.14% by weight for plain iron-carbon alloys
 History
Noble metals- GERMAN SS ,1913 –
Gold alloy, Pt, SILVER – 1887 HARRY BEARLY
Ir ANGLE OF Sheffield

In 1913, In 1919,
Krupp Engineers Elwood Haynes
patented austentic steel patented martenstic steel
 In 1929,
Wilkinson Sword,
SS used as orthodontic
material
In 1337,
SS was confirmed as
orthodontic material

100 YEARS OF Orthodontic history(2015)

AJODO 148 (6), 875-876
Stress is the force per unit area within a structure subjected to
an external force and pressure

Strain is the relative change in the shape or size of an object due

to externally applied force
 Stress Types

Tensile Compressive Shear

stress stress stress
 Elastic limit
• It is the maximum stress a material can withstand
before it becomes plastically deformed
 Proportional limit
Maximum stress at which stress is directly
proportional to strain and above which plastic
deformation occurs
 Yield strength
• The stress at which a test specimen exhibits a
specific amount of plastic strain.
 Deformation that is recovered upon
Elastic removal of an externally applied
force or pressure
Strain

Deformation that is not

recoverable when the externally
Plastic applied force is removed
Strain
•
Following are the parameters to measure elastic
strain or plastic strain :

Elastic Poisson’s
Flexibility Resilience
Modulus Ratio
Young’s Modulus
• Also known as elastic modulus (E)
• Describes relative stiffness or rigidity of a
material
 Flexibility
• The flexural strain that occurs when the material is
stressed to its proportional limit
 Formability
Amount of permanent deformation that a wire can
withstand before failing

Resiliency
The relative amount of elastic energy per unit volume that is
released on unloading
of a test specimen
 BAUSCHINGER EFFECT
• This phenomenon was discovered by Dr
Bauschinger in 1886
• He observed the relationship between
permanent deformation and loss of yield
strength and found that if metal is permanently
deformed , its yield strength is reduced in
opposite direction
• When a loop is bent in a wire,
it is differentially stretched so
that the outer surface
becomes more work
hardened and thus has better
spring properties than the
inner surface.
• If the spring is deflected in the
same direction as previous
bending , its elastic recovery
is better than if it is deflected
in opposite direction.
 Metallurgy
• Both steel and iron are crystalline in nature ..
 Classification
ACCORDING TO AISI(AMERICAN IRON & STEEL
INSTITUTE)

TYPE AISI NO
FERRITIC 430
AUSTENITIC 302, 304, 316L
MARTENSTIIC 400
Based on the CROSS -SECTION

ROUND SQUARE RECTANGLE

MULTI- TWISTED
STRANDED
 Based on the Lattice Arrangements

a) Ferritic ( bcc )
b) Austenitic ( fcc )
c) Martenistic ( bct )

Based on the Carbon Content (0.8 %)

a) Hypo-Eutectoid
b) Hyper-Eutectoid
Composition
 Function of Alloying elements
• Carbon - Increases strength and hardness
• Chromium - Passivating effect
• Molybdenum - Increase resistance to pitting
corrosion
• Nickel - helps reduce corrosion and
increases strength
• Cobalt - Decrease hardness , increase
impact strength
• Manganese - Acts as a scavenger and
increases hardness during quenching
• Silicon - Acts as a deoxidizer
• Titanium - Inhibits precipitation of
chromium carbide
 Ferritic Stainless Steel
• AISI no. 400
• Ferritic steels are high chromium,
magnetic stainless steels that have a low
carbon content
• body-centered cubic (BCC) grain structure
• good ductility, resistance to
corrosion and stress corrosion
cracking
• Stable at room temperature
• Cannot be hardened or strengthened by heat
treatment.
• They can be cold worked and softened by
annealing.
• Less expensive
• Not as strong or corrosion resistant as
austenitics.
• Little application in dentistry
• Commonly used in automotive applications,
kitchenware, and industrial equipment.
Cashell, K. A., & Baddoo, N. R. (2014). Ferritic stainless steels in
structural applications. Thin-Walled Structures, 83, 169–181.
 SuperFerritic Steel
• Belongs to the category having chromium as
much as 19% to 30%

• Nickel free and highly corrosion resistant.

• Corrosion resistance is further achieved by

adding small amount of aluminium and
molybdenum and very little carbon
 Austenitic stainless steel
• AISI 302, 304, 316L
• Austenitic steels are non-magnetic stainless
steels that contain high levels of chromium
and nickel and low levels of carbon
• Known for their formability
and resistance to corrosion
• Face-centered cubic (FCC)
crystal structure
• Stable at high temperature
• Austenitic FCC structure is unstable at lower
temperature where it tends to turn into BCC (ferrite).

• If austenizing elements are added highly corrosion

resistant solid solution phase can be preserved even at
room temperature

• USES : Automotive trim , Cookware Food and beverage

equipment, Industrial equipment

• Both 302 and 304 may be designated as 18/8 stainless

steel and are most commonly used in orthodontics in
form of bands and wires
Generally, austenitic stainless steel is preferable to the
ferritic alloy because of :
• Greater ductility & ability to undergo more cold work
without breakage.
• Substantial strengthening during cold working.
• Greater ease of welding.
• Ability to overcome sensitization.
• Less critical grain growth.
• Comparative ease in formation.
 Martenistic stainless steel
• AISI no. 400
• Martensitic stainless steels are characterized
by high strength and hardness in the heat
treated condition
• The first stainless steels
commercially developed
• Body -centered tetragonal
martensitic microstructure
• Metastable at room temperature
• Moderate corrosion resistance
• Hardened by heat treatment resulting in high
strength and hardness.
• These steels have improved toughness
• Improved weldability
• All martensitic stainless steels are ferro-
magnetic
• Martensitic stainless steels are used :

• surgical and dental instruments

• Aerospace
• Automotive
• cutlery, defense,
• power hand tools, pump parts,
• valve seats, chisels, bushings,
• shafts, and sporting equipment industry etc
 Duplex Stainless Steel
• Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of
austenite and ferrite, the aim usually being to produce a
50/50 mix, although in commercial alloys the ratio may be
40/60.

• High in chromium (19–32%) and molybdenum (up to 5%)

and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels.

• Have roughly twice the strength compared to austenitic

stainless steels.

• Improved resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking

in comparison to austenitic stainless steels
 Phase transformation
Austenite

FERRITE MARTENSITE

•The austenite-ferrite • The austenite-

phase transformation martensite phase
occurs by diffusional transformation occurs by
rearrangement of non-diffusional,
atoms. distortion
rearrangement of atoms.
1) Melting and
Casting The raw materials that constitute a stainless steel item are
placed together and melted in a giant electric furnace

2) Forming
In the second stage, the semi-finished steel shapes undergo a
series of forming operations. the stainless steel is hot rolled

3) Heat
Treatment The purpose of this heat treatment is to relieve the pent up
stress inside the stainless steel and soften the materiaL

4) Descaling a certain amount of scale appears on the surface of the

stainless steel . it is removed by DESCALING

5) Cutting The semi-finished, heat treated and descaled stainless steel

forms are cut into specific shapes

6) Finishing Finishing is applied to help the stainless steel product achieve

its signature aesthetically appealing appearance
 Properties
• Mechanical properties

• Modulus of elasticity - 179 GPa

• Yield strength - 1.6 GPa (0.2% offset)
• Ultimate tensile Strength - 2.1 Gpa
• Tensile strength - 200MPa
• Knoop’s hardness no. - 600
Summary of properties
• General properties

• Passivation
• Sensitization
• Stabilization
 Passivation
• Cr is added to steel as passivating agent

• It reacts to the atmospheric oxygen to form its

oxides thus preventing corrosion.

4Cr + 3O2 → 2Cr2O3

 Sensitization
• Loss of corrosion resistance of 18/8 stainless steel
o
when heated to high temperature i.e 400-900 C

• Here carbon atoms migrate to grain boundaries and

combine with chromium to form chromium carbide

• Thus chromium is not available for passivation

• Causes-high temp used in soldering & welding

• Prevention-use low fusing flux & less time
 Stabilization
• It is done to prevent sensitization.

• Here titanium is added in a quantity that is 6

times that of carbon in stainless steel.

• Ti has more affinity to form carbides than Cr.

thereby making Cr free to react with oxygen.

• Such stainless steel are called stabilized stainless

steel
Ductility: Malleability:
• Ability of a material to Ability of a material to
be drawn into wire be flattened into thin
• Percent elongation or sheet without cracking
reduction in an area in
It is due to
tension is empirically
compression
expressed as ductility.
 Heat treatment
• • Use of heating or cooling normally to extreme
temperature to achieve a desired result.

• 2 types of heat treatment :

• Softening heat treatment ANNEALING

• Hardening heat treatment TEMPERING

 Annealing
• It is a controlled heating and cooling process designed
to produce desired properties in a metal

• Effects associated with cold working ( eg strain

hardening, lowered ductility and distorted grains ) can
be reversed by simple heating the metal. The more
severe the cold working, more rapidly the effects can be
reversed by annealing.

• Annealing in general comprises of three stages :

• 1)Recovery
• 2) Recrystallization
• 3) Grain growth
 RECOVERY
• It is considered the stage at which the cold work
properties begin to disappear.
• There is slight decrease in tensile strength and no
change in ductility.

 RECRYSTALLIZATION
• Significant change in the microstructure
• Deformed grains replaced by new strain-free
grains
• Original soft and ductile properties return
• Recrystallization occurs only if metal has been
sufficiently cold worked
GRAIN GROWTH

• The recrystallized structure has a certain

average grain size depending on the number of
nuclei.

• The more severe the cold working the greater

the number of such nuclei.

• Thus the grain size for the completely

recrystallized material can range from fine to
fairly coarse.
• If fine grain structure is further
annealed,grain growth occurs to minimize the
grain boundary area,with large grains
consuming the small grains.

• The process continues till a coarse grain

structure is produced.
 Preciptation hardening Stainless steel
• Precipitation hardening stainless steels are
chromium and nickel containing steels that
provide an optimum combination of the
properties of martensitic and austenitic grades.

• Like martensitic grades, they are known for

their ability to gain high strength through heat
treatment and they also have the corrosion
resistance of austenitic stainless steels.
• The high tensile strengths of precipitation
hardening stainless steels come after a heat
treatment process that leads to precipitation
hardening of a martensitic or austenitic matrix.
 Soldering
• It is defined as joining of metals by the fusion
of filler metal between them at a temperature
below the solidus temp. of the metals being
joined and below 450o C

• Components of soldered joint :

» Parent metal
» Solder / Filler metal
» Fluxes and anti-flux
• Ideally silver solders are used – alloy of silver ,
copper, zinc to which tin and indium are added
to lower the fusion temperature and improve
solderability
• Technical consideration :

Needle like non-luminous gas air flame is used.

The work is held 3 mm beyond the tip of the blue cone in

the reducing zone of the flame

Shouldering should be observed against the dark

background so the temperature can be judge according
to color of the work

Part can be tag welded to hold it. Flux should be applied

and the heavier gauge is heated first

Metal should be allowed to flow. The work should be

quenched immediately in water
 Welding
• It is the process in which surface of the metals
are joined by mixing, with or without the use of
heat

• Cold welding is done by hammering or pressure .

e.g - gold foil filing

• Hot welding is done by the use of sufficeint

amount of heat so as to melt the metal being
joined
• Spot welding is used in orthodontics.
• The welded area becomes susceptible to
corrosion due to chromium carbide precipitation
and hence loss of passivation

• This is known as weld decay

pliers wire bands

brackets Photography
mirror
 Recycling
• Stainless steel is 100% recyclable

• An average stainless steel object is composed of

about 60% recycled material of which approximately
40% originates from end-of-life products and about
60% comes from manufacturing processes.

• According to the International Resource

Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the per
capita stock of stainless steel in use in society is 80–
180 kg in more developed countries and 15 kg in
less-developed countries.
• Sorting: Because many forms of stainless steel are non magnetic, this
metal cannot be easily separated from other recyclables in a recycling
facility with magnetic belts.
• Baling: Stainless steel products are compacted into large blocks to improve
ease of handling and transport.
• Shearing: Hydraulic machinery capable of exerting enormous pressure is
used to cut thick heavy stainless steel into smaller pieces.
• Media separation: Shredders incorporate rotating magnetic drums to
separate ferrous metals from other materials. Further separation is
achieved using electrical currents, high-pressure air flow and liquid
floating systems.
• Melting: The recovered materials are melted together in a furnace. This
process is determined by the level of purity necessary for the future
applications of the secondary raw material. The melted stainless steel is
then poured into casters and shaped into ingots or slabs. Later on, they
can be rolled into flat sheets that are used to manufacture new products.
• There is a secondary market that recycles usable scrap
for many stainless steel markets.

• The product is mostly coil, sheet, and blanks.

• This material is purchased at a less-than-prime price

and sold to commercial quality stampers and sheet
metal houses.

• The material may have scratches, pits, and dents but is

made to the current specification
 Health effect
• Stainless steel is generally considered to be
biologically inert, but some sensitive
individuals develop a skin irritation due to
a nickel allergy caused by certain alloys.

• Stainless steel leaches small amounts of nickel

and chromium during cooking
The Future of Stainless Steel
• The growth of stainless steel is likely to increase as the
sustainability benefits of stainless steel become more
widely known.

• Researchers have even found that coating stainless

steel with certain bio-inspired adhesives makes it anti-
bacterial, thus adding to the long list of benefits of
stainless steel.

• This innovative material is therefore a material that is

very likely to extend its use well into the next century
and beyond