PHYSIOLOGY OF

ANIMAL CELLS
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY
By Sudheera Semasinghe
What is physiology?

 Physiologyis the scientific investigation of

the processes or functions of living things.
What is a cell?

A cell is the smallest unit that is capable of performing life functions

According to the cell theory,

Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living

organisms.

All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.

All cells come from pre-existing cells.

A typical
animal cell
These are the cells that
are found in organisms
of Kingdom Animalia
and they are eukaryotic
cells.
Parts of an animal cell

Animal cell

Plasma membrane Protoplasm

Nucleus Cytoplasm

Cellular
organelles Cytosol matrix
 Diagram of a typical animal cell

Ribosomes
Nucleus
Microvilli
Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum Smooth
Endoplasmic
Mitochondrion Reticulum

Golgi
Apparatus
Centriole
Plasma
membrane

Lysosome Peroxisome
Plasma membrane

The limiting membrane that envelop all

eukaryotic cells.
It is made of phospholipids, cholesterol,
proteins, and oligosaccharide chains.
Plasma membranes range from 7.5 to 10 nm
in thickness and consequently are visible
only in the electron microscope.
Overall functions of plasma membrane

1. Act as a physical barrier: Establishes a flexible

boundary, protects cellular contents and
supports cell structure. Phospholipid bilayer
separates substances inside and outside the
cell.
2. Selective permeability:
Regulates the entry
and exit of the ions, nutrients and waste
molecules. Trans-membrane proteins helps in
molecular exchange.

Simple diffusion Transport via Transport by carrier

protein channels molecules
3. Establishes and maintains an electrical charge
difference across the membrane.

4. Communication: Recognize and respond to

molecular signals. Three types of receptors
involves in this.

 Channel-linkedreceptors
 Enzymatic receptors
 G-protein–coupled receptors
Nucleus

 Nucleus is the
command center
of the cell.
 It contains the
code for all of a
cell’s enzymes
and other
proteins.
 Molecules move between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm through tiny openings called nuclear
pore.

 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is mostly found

within the nucleus. Nuclear DNA and associated
proteins are organized into discrete structures
called chromosomes. During most of the cell’s
life cycle, the chromosomes are dispersed
throughout the nucleus as delicate filaments
referred to as chromatin.
 DNA are the genetic materials which transfer genetic
information into new cells and also involve in protein
synthesis

 A nucleolus is a dense region within the nucleus that

lacks a surrounding membrane.

 Usually, one nucleolus exists per nucleus, but several

nucleoli may be seen in the nuclei of rapidly dividing
cells.

 Within the nucleolus, the subunits of ribosomes are

manufactured.
Overall functions of nucleus

1.Cellular regulation: Houses genetic materials

which directs all cellular activities and regulate
cellular structure.

2.Production of ribosomal subunits: Produce and

then transport ribosomal subunits into cytoplasm
for assembly into ribosomes.
Cell cycle
Ribosome

 Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.

 Each ribosome is composed of a large subunit and a
small subunit.
 The ribosomal subunits consist of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
produced in the nucleus and proteins produced in the
cytoplasm.
 Ribosomal subunits assemble with mRNA to form the
functional ribosome during protein synthesis that takes
place in the cytoplasm.
 Free ribosomes primarily synthesize proteins
used inside the cell

 Ribosomes attached to the endoplasmic

reticulum produce integral membrane proteins
 Endoplasmic reticulum

 The outer membrane of the nuclear envelope

is continuous with a series of membranes
referred to as the endoplasmic reticulum.

 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) is called

“rough” because ribosomes are attached to
it.

 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), do not

have attached ribosomes.
Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Proteins are produced and modified, and then secreted.
 Transport of molecules within the cells.

 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Manufactures lipids, such as phospholipids, cholesterol, and steroid
hormones
 Manufactures carbohydrates.
 Participates in detoxification.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum of skeletal muscle stores the
calcium ions that function in muscle contraction.
 Transport of molecules within the cells.
Golgi Apparatus

 The Golgi apparatus is composed of

flattened, membranous sacs, containing
cisternae, stacked on each other.

 The Golgi apparatus is most highly

developed in cells that secrete large
amounts of protein or glycoproteins, such
as cells in the salivary glands and the
pancreas.
Functions of Golgi apparatus

 It modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids

manufactured by the rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticula.

 Golgi apparatus chemically modifies the proteins by

synthesizing and attaching carbohydrate molecules
to the proteins to form glycoproteins or by attaching
lipids to proteins to form lipoproteins.
Action of Golgi
Apparatus
Lysosome

 Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles that form at

the Golgi apparatus.
 They contain a variety of hydrolytic enzymes that
function as intracellular digestive systems.
 Enzymes within lysosomes digest nucleic acids, proteins,
polysaccharides, and lipids.
 Lysosomes also digest the organelles of the cell that are
no longer functional, a process called autophagy.
 Lysosomes move to the plasma membrane, and the
enzymes are secreted by exocytosis.
Action of the lysosome
Peroxisome

 Peroxisomes are membrane-bound vesicles that are smaller than

lysosomes.
 Peroxisomes contain enzymes that break down fatty acids and
amino acids.

 Hydrogen peroxide which can be toxic to the cell, is a by-product

of that breakdown. Peroxisomes also contain the enzyme catalase,
which breaks down hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen.
 Cells that are active in detoxification, such as liver and kidney cells,
have many peroxisomes.
 Mitochondrion

 Mitochondria provide energy

for the cell. So they are often
called the cell’s power plants
or power houses.
 Mitochondria are the major
sites for the production of ATP,
which is the primary energy
source for most energy
requiring chemical reactions
within the cell.
A complex series of mitochondrial enzymes
forms two major enzyme systems, which are
responsible for oxidative metabolism and most
ATP synthesis.

 The enzymes of the citric acid (Krebs) cycle are in

the matrix

 The enzymes of the Electron transport chain are

embedded within the inner membrane.
ATP
Synthesis
1.Glycolysis

2.Citric Acid
Cycle
(Krebs's
Cycle)

3.Electron
Transport
Chain
Cytoskeleton

 Thecytoplasmic cytoskeleton is a complex

array of ,

1. microtubules,
2. microfilaments (actin filaments),
3. intermediate filaments.
Functions of cytoskeleton

1. Determine the shapes of cells.

2. Play an important role in the movements of
organelles and cytoplasmic vesicles. (Cytosol
streaming)

3. Allow the movement of entire cells. (Cell motility)

4. Provides structural support to the cell.
5. Stabilizes the cell junctions.
References

 Junqueira's Basic Histology: Text and Atlas (13th Ed)

by Anthony L. Mescher, PhD.

 Seeley's Anatomy & Physiology (10th Edition)

by Cinnamon L. VanPutte, PhD., Jennifer L. Regan, PhD., and
Andrew F. Russo, PhD.