Computer Memory

Rovelito I. Navarra

Dec. 10-2013

1
Introduction
• Hardware refers to the physical equipment used for the
input, processing, output and storage activities of a
computer system.

• Central processing unit (CPU) manipulates the data and

controls the tasks performed by the other components.

• Primary storage internal to the CPU; temporarily stores

data and program instructions during processing.

2
How the CPU Works

3
 How the CPU Works (Continued)
• Binary form: The form in which data and instructions can be
read by the CPU – only 0s and 1s.

• Machine instruction cycle: The cycle of computer processing,

whose speed is measured in terms of the number of instructions
a chip processes per second.

• Clock speed: The preset speed of the computer clock that times
all chip activities, measured in megahertz and gigahertz.

• Word length: The number of bits (0s and 1s) that can be
processed by the CPU at any one time.

• Bus width: The size of the physical paths down which the data
and instructions travel as electrical impulses on a computer
chip.
4
What is Memory
Main memory consists of a number of
storage locations, each of which is
identified by a unique address
The ability of the CPU to identify
each location is known as its
addressability
Each location stores a word i.e. the
number of bits that can be processed
by the CPU in a single operation.
Word length may be typically 16, 24,
32 or as many as 64 bits.

A large word length improves system

performance, though may be less
efficient on occasions when the full word
length is not used

5
 Computer Memory

• Two basic categories of computer memory:

• Primary storage and secondary storage.
– Primary stores small amounts of data and information
that will be immediately used by the CPU.
– Secondary stores much larger amounts of data and
information (an entire software program, for example)
for extended periods of time.

6
 Primary Storage
• Primary storage or main memory stores three types of
information for very brief periods of time:
– Data to be processed by the CPU;
– Instructions for the CPU as to how to process the data;
– Operating system programs that manage various
aspects of the computer’s operation.
• Primary storage takes place in chips mounted on the
computer’s main circuit board, called the motherboard.
• Four main types of primary storage: register, random
access memory (RAM), cache memory and read-only
memory (ROM).

7
 Types of Primary Storage
• Registers: registers are part of the CPU with the least
capacity, storing extremely limited amounts of
instructions and data only immediately before and
after processing.

• Random access memory (RAM): The part of

primary storage that holds a software program and
small amounts of data when they are brought from
secondary storage.

• Cache memory: A type of primary storage where the

computer can temporarily store blocks of data used
more often.
8
 Types Primary Storage (Continued)
• Read-only memory (ROM): Type of primary
storage where certain critical instructions are
safeguarded; the storage is nonvolatile and retains
the instructions when the power to the computer
is turned off.

• Flash memory: A form of rewritable read-only

memory that is compact, portable, and requires
little energy.

9
Random Access Memory (RAM)

holds its data as long as the computer is switched on

All data in RAM is lost when the computer is switched off

Described as being volatile

It is direct access as it can be both written to or read from in any order
Its purpose is to temporarily hold programs and data for processing.
In modern computers it also holds the operating system

10
Types of RAM
1. Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)
• Contents are constantly refreshed 1000 times per second
• Access time 60 – 70 nanoseconds

2. Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory (SDRAM)

• Quicker than DRAM
• Access time less than 60 nanoseconds

3. Direct Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRDRAM)

• New type of RAM architecture
• Access time 20 times faster than DRAM
• More expensive

11
Types of RAM
4. Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)
• Doesn’t need refreshing
• Retains contents as long as power applied to the chip
• Access time around 10 nanoseconds
• Used for cache memory
• Also for date and time settings as powered by small battery

5. Video Random Access memory

• Holds data to be displayed on computer screen
• Has two data paths allowing READ and WRITE to occur at the same time
• A system’s amount of VRAM relates to the number of colours and resolution
• A graphics card may have its own VRAM chip on board

12
Read only memory (ROM)

ROM holds programs and data permanently even when computer is

switched off

Data can be read by the CPU in any order so ROM is also direct access

The contents of ROM are fixed at the time of manufacture

Stores a program called the bootstrap loader that helps start up the
computer

Access time of between 10 and 50 nanoseconds

13
Types of ROM
1. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)
• Empty of data when manufactured
• May be permanently programmed by the user

2. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

• Can be programmed, erased and reprogrammed
• The EPROM chip has a small window on top allowing it to be erased by
shining ultra-violet light on it
• After reprogramming the window is covered to prevent new contents being
erased
• Access time is around 45 – 90 nanoseconds

14
Types of ROM
3. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)
• Reprogrammed electrically without using ultraviolet light
• Must be removed from the computer and placed in a special machine to do this
• Access times between 45 and 200 nanoseconds

4. Flash ROM
• Similar to EEPROM
• However, can be reprogrammed while still in the computer
• Easier to upgrade programs stored in Flash ROM
• Used to store programs in devices e.g. modems
• Access time is around 45 – 90 nanoseconds

5. ROM cartridges
• Commonly used in games machines
• Prevents software from being easily copied
15
Caches
• The rate of data fetching by the CPU from the main memory is
about 100 times faster than from secondary memory. But
there is also a mismatch between main memory and CPU.
CPU can process the data 10 times faster than the main
memory. Which limits the performance of the CPU due to
mismatch in CPU and main memory speed. So Cache memory
act as a buffer b/w main memory and CPU.
• Cache: A smaller, high speed storage device used to increase
the speed of processing by making current programs and data
available to the CPU at a rapid rate. The basic characteristic of
cache memory is its fast access time.

16
 Cache memory

• Small amount of memory typically 256 or 512 kilobytes

• Temporary store for often used instructions
• Level 1 cache is built within the CPU (internal)
• Level 2 cache may be on chip or nearby (external)
• Faster for CPU to access than main memory

17
The operation of cache memory

1. Cache fetches data 2. CPU checks to see

from next to current whether the next
addresses in main instruction it requires is in
memory cache

Cache
Main
Memory CPU
Memory
(SRAM)
(DRAM)

3. If it is, then the

4. If not, the CPU has to
instruction is fetched from
fetch next instruction
the cache – a very fast
from main memory - a
position
much slower process

= Bus connections 18
Virtual memory

• Uses backing storage e.g. hard disk as a temporary location for

programs and data where insufficient RAM available
• Swaps programs and data between the hard-disk and RAM as the
CPU requires them for processing
• A cheap method of running large or many programs on a computer
system
• Cost is speed: the CPU can access RAM in nanoseconds but hard-
disk in milliseconds
• Virtual memory is much slower than RAM

19
Secondary Storage

• Memory capacity that can store very large amounts of

data for extended periods of time.
– It is nonvolatile.
– It takes much more time to retrieve data because of
the electromechanical nature.
– It is cheaper than primary storage.
– It can take place on a variety of media

20
 Secondary storage

Sequential access Direct access

Magnetic tape

Magnetic disk Optical disk

Floppy disk Hard disk CD-ROM WORM

21
 Secondary Storage (Continued)
• Hard disk: A form of secondary storage that stores data on
platters divided into concentric tracks and sectors, which can be
read by a read/write head that pivots across the rotating disks.

• Floppy disk: A form of easily portable secondary storage on

flexible disks; also called floppy disks.
 Secondary Storage (Continued)
• Optical storage devices: A form of secondary storage in
which a laser reads the surface of a reflective plastic platter.

• Compact disk, read-only memory (CD-ROM): A form of

secondary storage that can be only read and not written on.

• Digital video disk (DVD): An optical storage device used to

store digital video or computer data.

• Fluorescent multilayer disk (FMD-ROM): An optical

storage device with much greater storage capacity than DVDs.
Memory Hierarchy

24
 An Example Memory Hierarchy

Smaller, L0:
faster, registers CPU registers hold words retrieved from
and L1 cache.
costlier L1: on-chip L1
(per byte) cache (SRAM) L1 cache holds cache lines retrieved
storage from the L2 cache memory.
devices L2: off-chip L2
cache (SRAM) L2 cache holds cache lines retrieved
from main memory.

L3: main memory

Larger, (DRAM)
Main memory holds disk
slower, blocks retrieved from local
and disks.
cheaper local secondary storage
L4:
(per byte) (local disks)
storage Local disks hold files
retrieved from disks on
devices remote network servers.

L5: remote secondary storage

(distributed file systems, Web servers)
25
• Mr. R. Navarra
• CHS Trainer

26