Chapter Two

Maintenance Strategies
Objective

 Preventive maintenance(PM)

 Corrective maintenance(CM)

 Predictive maintenance(PDM)

 Reliability center maintenance(RCM)

1 6/7/2019
 1. Preventive Maintenance (PM)
 PM is an important element of a maintenance activity and within a

Maintenance department it normally accounts for a significant proportion of

the overall maintenance activity.

 PM is the care and servicing by individuals involved with maintenance to keep

equipment/facilities in satisfactory operational state by providing for

systematic inspection, detection, and correction of incipient failures either
prior to their occurrence or prior to their development into major failure.

 It is planned maintenance action aimed at the prevention of breakdowns and

failures.

 Actions performed on a time- or - machine-run-based schedule.

6/7/2019
2
  The primary goal of PM is

 to prevent the failure of equipment before it actually occurs

 It is designed to preserve and enhance equipment reliability by

replacing worn components before they actually fail.

 There are many objectives of performing PM including

 Improving capital equipment’s productive life,

 reducing production losses caused by equipment failure,

 minimizing critical equipment breakdowns, and

 improving the health and safety of maintenance personnel

3 6/7/2019
 Researchers subdivided preventive maintenance into different
kinds according to the nature of its activities:
 Routine maintenance: repetitive and periodic in nature such as lubrication,
cleaning, and small adjustment.

 Running maintenance: carried out before the actual PM activities take place
while the machine is running.

 Opportunity maintenance: performed on a machine when an unplanned

opportunity exists during the period of performing planned maintenance activities to
other machines.

 Window maintenance: carried out when a machine or equipment is not

required for a definite period of time.

 Shutdown PM: carried out when the production line is in total stoppage situation.
4 6/7/2019
 Inspection Alignment

Servicing
Adjustment
Elements of PM

Installation Calibration

Testing

5 6/7/2019
  Making changes to an item’s specified variable elements to achieve optimum

performance

• Periodically lubricating, charging, cleaning, and so on, materials

or items to prevent the occurrence of incipient failures

• Detecting and adjusting any discrepancy in the accuracy of

the material or parameter being compared to the established standard value

• Periodically replacing limited-life items or items experiencing time cycle or wear degradation to
maintain the specified tolerance level
• Periodically testing to determine serviceability and detect mechanical or electrical degradation

• Periodically making adjustments to specified variable elements to

• achieve optimum performance
6 6/7/2019
Need of PM program
 When does a plant /organization require to run a PM program

 Low equipment use due to failures

 Large volume of scrap and rejects due to unreliable

equipment

 Rise in equipment repair costs due to negligence in areas

such as regular lubrication, inspection, and replacement of

worn items/components

 High idle operator times due to equipment failures

 Reduction in capital equipment expected productive life due

7 6/7/2019
to unsatisfactory maintenance
Cont.….
 In general PM makes sense if these two conditions met:

1. The component in question has an increasing failure rate.

2. The overall cost of the preventive maintenance action must be less than the overall
cost of a corrective action.
 If both of these conditions are met PM would make sense

 The principle or formula to be used when deciding to go ahead with a PM

program:

(NB) (ACPBD) () > CPMS

 CPMS = total cost of preventive maintenance system,

 NB = number of breakdowns, ACPBD = average cost per breakdown.

  = a factor whose value is proposed to be taken as 70%; more specifically, 70% of the

8
total cost of breakdowns, 6/7/2019
  To develop an effective PM program, it requires availability of

necessary items such as:

 Accurate historical records of equipment,

 Manufacturer’s recommendations ,

 Skilled personnel,

 Past data from similar equipment,

 Service manuals,

 Unique identification of all equipment,

 Appropriate test instruments and tools,

 Management support and user cooperation,

 Failure information by problem/cause/ action

9 6/7/2019
 The steps involved in developing a PM program are:

1. Identify and choose the areas:- Identify and select of one or two important areas on which to
concentrate the initial preventive maintenance effort.

2. Identify the PM needs:- Define the PM needs and then develop a schedule for two types of tasks:
daily PM inspections and periodic PM assignments.

3. Establish assignment frequency:- Establish the frequency of assignments and review the item or
equipment records and conditions.
The frequency depends on factors such as
 vendor recommendations,

 the experience of personnel familiar with the equipment or item under consideration, and

 recommendations from engineers

10 6/7/2019
4. Prepare the PM assignments:- Prepare the daily and periodic
assignments in an effective manner and then get them approved.

5. Schedule the PM assignments on annual basis:- Schedule the

defined preventive maintenance assignments on the basis of a 12-

month period.

6. Expand the PM program as necessary:- Expand the preventive

maintenance program to other areas on the basis of experience gained from
the pilot preventive maintenance projects.

11 6/7/2019
 PM Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
• Increase in equipment availability

• Improved safety

• Performed as convenient,

• Reduction in overtime

• Balanced workload

• Increase in production revenue

• Reduction in parts inventory

• Estimated 12% to 18% cost savings over corrective maintenance program

• Increased component life cycle.

• Reduced equipment or process failure. 6/7/2019

12
 Disadvantages
• Increases in initial costs,

• Demands more frequent access to equipment/item.

• Labor intensive.

• It is time consuming and resource intensive.

• It does not consider actual equipment condition when scheduling

or performing the maintenance.

• Exposing equipment to possible damage which means it can cause

problems in equipment in addition to solving them (e.g. damaging

seals, stripping threads).
13 6/7/2019
 PM Measures
The important measures of PM are:
 Mean preventive maintenance time (MPMT),

 Median preventive maintenance time (MDPMT), and

i. Mean Preventive Maintenance Time (MPMT)

 It is the average equipment downtime needed to conduct scheduled PM.

 This time does not include PM time expended on the equipment during
operation or administrative and logistic downtime.

14 6/7/2019
  MPMT is defined by

Where
• m = total number of data points,

• MPMTi = mean or average time needed to perform ith preventive

maintenance action, for i = 1, 2, 3,…,m,

• f i = frequency of ith preventive maintenance action in actions per

operating hour after adjustment for equipment duty cycle.

15 6/7/2019
 ii. Median preventive maintenance time (MDPMT)
 This is the equipment downtime needed to carry out 50% of all scheduled

PM actions on the equipment under the conditions outlined for MDPMT.

 For lognormal distributed PM times, the MDPMT is given by:

Where
• i = constant failure rate of element i, adjusted for factors such as duty

cycle, tolerance and interaction failures, and catastrophic failures that will
lead to the degree that a maintenance action will be started, for i =1, 2, 3,
…, m
16 6/7/2019
 PM Models
Model I :Inspection Optimization ,
 Inspections are often disruptive, but they usually reduce downtime

because of lesser number of failures.

 This model can be used to obtain the optimum number of inspections

per facility per unit of time. Total facility downtime is defined by:

17 6/7/2019
 Where
• TFDT = the total downtime per unit of time for a given facility,

• x = the number of inspections per facility per unit of time,

• DTi = the facility downtime per inspection,

• DTf = the facility downtime per failure or breakdown, c = a constant

associated with a specific facility.

• x* = the optimum number of inspections per facility per unit of time. and

• TFDT* is the total optimal downtime per unit of time for a facility.

18 6/7/2019
 Example :
The following data values are associated with an engineering
facility
c=3 DTi = 0.03 month DTf = 0.2 month
Calculate the optimal number of inspections per month
Solution:

19 6/7/2019
 Model II

 This model can predict items such as system availability,

probability of system failure, and probability of the system being

down for preventive maintenance.

 Using the Markov method and System transition diagram Above,

we get the following expression for the steady-state probabilities

of the system being in states 0, p, and f, respectively.
20 6/7/2019
Where:
 λp = the rate of the system being down for preventive maintenance.
 λf = the system failure rate.
 µp = the rate of system preventive maintenance performance.
 µf = the system repair or corrective maintenance rate.
 i= the ith system state; i =0 (system operating normally), i = p(system down
for preventive maintenance), i = f(system failed).
 P0, Pp and Pf are the steady-state probabilities of the system being in states 0,
21 p, and f, respectively. 6/7/2019
 

22 6/7/2019
 2. Corrective Maintenance (CM)
 CM is the remedial action carried out due to failure or deficiencies

discovered during preventive maintenance, to repair an equipment/item to

its operational state.

 Usually, it is an unscheduled maintenance action, basically composed of

unpredictable maintenance needs that cannot be preplanned or programmed

on the basis of occurrence at a particular time.

 Normally, CM is an unplanned maintenance action that requires urgent

attention that must be added, integrated with, or substituted for previously

scheduled work.

 CM or repair is an important element of overall maintenance activity.

23 6/7/2019
 This type of maintenance is subdivided into three types:

1. Remedial maintenance:- performed to eliminate the source of failure without

interrupting the continuity of the production process.

2. Deferred maintenance:- that are not immediately initiated after the

occurrence of a failure but are delayed in such a way that will not affect the
production process.

3. Shutdown corrective maintenance:- performed when the production line is

in total stoppage situation.

Failure mode/ event

Primary failure
Secondary failure
Passage of time/ aging failure
24 6/7/2019
 fail – repair

Salvage Overhaul
Types of CM

Servicing Rebuild

 concerned with restoring an item through actions such as complete disassembly,

 This type of CM may be required because of a CM action; for example, engine
examination
concerned of all parts,
with replacement
the disposal or repair of
of nonrepairable unserviceable
materials or worn of
and utilization components
salvaged
 concerned
 concerned
repair with with
can result repairing or restoring
restoring
in requirement the anitem
forfailed itemor
crankcase orequipment
equipment
refill, to
weldingto itsand
on,its complete
so on. serviceable
according
materialstofrom
original
itemsspecifications
that cannot beandrepaired
manufacturing tolerances,
in the overhaul, and reassembly
repair, and
or rebuild programs
state,operational
using the “inspect
state. and repair only as appropriate” method. 6/7/2019
25 testing to original production requirements.
 Corrective Maintenance steps:-

 The sequential steps for Recognition of existence of a

failure
performing CM are:
Localizing the failure within the
1. fault recognition, system to a specific
item/equipment
2. localization,
Diagnosing within the
3. diagnosis,
item/equipment to identify
4. repair, and specific failed part/component

5. Checkout Replacing or repairing failed

item/part/component

Checking out and returning the

26
system to service 6/7/2019
 Downtime components
 The major corrective maintenance downtime components are:
 active repair time,

 administrative and logistic time, and

 delay time.

 The active repair time is made up of:

• Preparation time

• Fault location time

• Spare item obtainment time

• Fault correction time

• Adjustment and calibration time

• Checkout time
27 6/7/2019
 Strategies for reducing the system-level corrective
maintenance time
 Improve fault recognition, location, and isolation

 Improve interchangeability

 Employ Redundancy

 Improve accessibility

 Consider Human factors

 In order to improve corrective maintenance effectiveness, it is

important to reduce corrective maintenance time.

28 6/7/2019
 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
 Low cost

 Less staff

Disadvantages
 Increased cost due to unplanned downtime

 Increased labor cost, if overtime is needed.

 Cost involved with repair or replacement

 Possible secondary equipment or process damage from equipment failure.

 Inefficient use of staff resources.

 Faster plant deterioration

 Increases chances of accidents and less safety for both workers and machines
29 6/7/2019
 Corrective Maintenance Measures
a. Mean Corrective Maintenance Time
This is defined by:

where
 Tmcm = mean corrective maintenance time,

 Tcmj = corrective maintenance time of the jth equipment/system

element,
 λj = failure rate of the jth equipment/system element.

30 6/7/2019
Probability distributions of corrective maintenance times:
 Usually corrective maintenance times are described by normal,
lognormal, and exponential probability distributions.
 Examples of the types of equipment that follow these distributions
are:
• Exponential- for electronic equipment with built-in test capability and
remove and replace maintenance concept
• Normal- Mechanical and electro-mechanical hardware with a remove
and replace concept, and
• Lognormal - to electronic equipment that does not possess built-in test
capability.

31 6/7/2019
 b) Median Active Corrective Maintenance Time
 Provides the best average location of the sample data

 It is a measure of the time within which 50% of all corrective maintenance can be
accomplished.
 The computation of this measure depends on the distribution representing
corrective maintenance times. Consequently, the median of the lognormally
distributed corrective maintenance times is given by:

Where
 Tmed = median active corrective maintenance time.

32 6/7/2019
 CM Mathematical Models
 These models consider item failure and corrective maintenance rates, and
can be used to predict item, equipment, and system availability, reliability,
probability of being in failed state (i.e., undergoing repair), mean time to
failure, and so on.
 Common time rated measures:
• Mean time between failure (MTBF)

• Mean up time between failure (MUT)

• Mean time to failure (MTTF)

• Mean downtime between failure (MDT)

• Mean time to repair (MTTR)

• Mean logistic and delay time (MLDT)

33 6/7/2019
MODEL-1

 This model represents a system that can be in either operating or failed state.

 The failed system is repaired back to its operating state.

 Most industrial systems, equipment, and items follow this pattern.

 The system-state space diagram is shown bellow:

 The following assumptions are associated with the model:

 Failure and repair (i.e. CM) rates are constant.

 The repaired system is as good as new.

34 6/7/2019
 System failures are statistically independent.


35 6/7/2019
 Example 1:
Assume the MTTF of a piece of equipment is 3000 h and its mean corrective
maintenance time is 5 h. Calculate the equipment steady-state availability, if the
equipment failure and corrective maintenance times are exponentially distributed.
Answer:

 There is 99.83% chance that the equipment will be available for service.

Example 2:
A system’s mean time to failure is 2,000 hours and its mean corrective maintenance
time, or mean time to repair, is 25 hours. Calculate the system steady-state availability
and unavailability if the system failure and corrective maintenance time follow
exponential distribution.

36 6/7/2019
MODEL II
 This model represents a system that can either be operating normally or failed in

two mutually exclusive failure modes (i.e., failure modes I and II). E.g. a fluid flow
valve (i.e., open and close failure modes). maintenance is performed from either
failure mode.
 The associated assumptions with this model are :

• The system can fail in two mutually exclusive failure modes.

• The system contains two independent and identical units.

• No repair or corrective maintenance is performed when both the units fail or the

system fails
• The repaired system is as good as new.

• All system failures are statistically independent.

• Failure and corrective maintenance rates are constant.

37 6/7/2019
 Figure System transition diagram.
38 6/7/2019
  The symbols are associated with the model:

 i = the ith system state,

• i = 0 (system operating normally),

• i = 1 (system failed in failure mode type I),

• i = 2 (system failed in failure mode type II),

 Pi(t) = probability that the system is in state i at time t, for i = 0,

1, 2,

 i = system failure rate from state 0 to state i, for i = 1, 2,

 µCi = system corrective maintenance rate from state i to state 0,

for i = 1, 2.
39 6/7/2019
  Using the Markov method the expression for the system steady

state availability and failure are:

40 6/7/2019


41 6/7/2019
 3. Predictive Maintenance (PDM)
 PDM is a philosophy or attitude that uses actual operating condition to
optimize total plant operation involving the use of sensors, analysis, and
computer software to detect conditions that might eventually lead to
equipment failure.
 The common premise of PDM is that regular monitoring of the actual
electro mechanical condition and operating efficiency, to ensure:
 The maximum interval between repairs and

 Minimize the number and cost of unscheduled outages created by

machine – train failures.

42 6/7/2019
 Some researchers classified PDM as a type of PM.

 PDM is a condition – driven PM program (Compared to periodic

maintenance).
 The main difference between preventive maintenance and predictive

maintenance is that
 predictive maintenance uses monitoring the condition of machines or equipment to

determine the actual mean time to failure whereas

 preventive maintenance depends on industrial average life statistics.

 It is classified into two kinds according to the methods of detecting the signs of

failure:
 Condition-based predictive maintenance

43  Statistical-based predictive maintenance 6/7/2019

i. Condition-based PDM:- depends on continuous or periodic condition

monitoring equipment to detect the signs of failure.

ii. Statistical-based PDM:- depends on statistical data from the meticulous

recording of the stoppages of the in-plant items and components in order to

develop models for predicting failures.

 In general predictive maintenance program:

 Measure equipment on a regular basis,

 Monitor the condition of the equipment and predict when it would fail,

 Track the measurements over time, and

 Take corrective action when measurements are about to go outside the

equipment operating limits.

44 6/7/2019
 The steps in a predictive maintenance program can be summarized as
follows:
1. Key values are observed or measured.
2. These values are compared to norms/standards for the equipment
and potential problems are predicted.
3. Any equipment which falls outside of norms is scheduled for repair
or re-testing.

45 6/7/2019
 Designing a PDM Program
 An effective PDM program must include both condition-driven
and time-driven tasks.
 At a minimum, each plant should evaluate:

a) Failure data
b) Improving equipment reliability
c) Improvement process
d) Failures that can be prevented
e) Maintenance to prevent failures
f) Personnel

46 g) Service Teams 6/7/2019

 Condition monitoring ‘ COM’
 It is a major component of predictive maintenance.

 COM is the process of monitoring a parameter of condition in

machinery, such that a significant change is indicative of a developing

failure.
 The use of conditional monitoring allows maintenance to be scheduled,

or other actions to be taken to avoid the consequences of failure, before

the failure occurs.
 Condition monitoring has a unique benefit in that the actual load, and

subsequent heat dissipation that represents normal service can be seen

and conditions that would shorten normal lifespan can be addressed
47 6/7/2019
before repeated failures occur.
 Factors That Increasing The Demand Condition
Monitoring

 Increased quality expectations reflected in produces

liability legislation

 Increased automation to improve profitability and

maintain competitiveness.

 Increased safety and reliability expectations

 Increased cost of maintenance due to labor and material

cost.

48 6/7/2019
 Key features of condition monitoring.

1. Links between cause and effect

2. Systems with sufficient response

3. Mechanisms for objective data assessment

4. Benefits outweighing cost

5. Data storage and review facilities

49 6/7/2019
 Basic steps in condition monitoring.

1. Identifying critical systems

2. Selecting suitable techniques for condition monitoring

3. Setting baselines / a minimum or starting point used for

comparisons.

4. Data collection

5. Data assessment

6. Fault diagnosis and repair

7. System review 6/7/2019

50
 PDM Techniques
 A comprehensive PDM program must include monitoring and

diagnostic techniques like:

1) Vibration monitoring,
2) Thermography,
3) Tribology,
4) Process parameters,
5) Visual inspection, and
6) Other nondestructive testing techniques.

Also called as a condition monitoring techniques/predictive

testing and inspection technologies.

51 6/7/2019
  vibration monitoring is generally the key component of most PDM
programs, because mechanical systems or machines account for the
majority of plant equipment.

 However, vibration monitoring cannot provide all of the information that

will be required for a successful PDM program.

 This technique is limited to monitoring the mechanical condition and not

other critical parameters required to maintain reliability and efficiency of
machinery.

 It is a very limited tool for monitoring critical process and machinery

efficiencies and other parameters that can severely limit productivity and

52
product quality. 6/7/2019
1.Vibration monitoring
 This technique uses the noise or vibration created by mechanical

equipment and in some cases by plant systems to determine their

actual condition/mechanical condition.
 Vibration monitoring helps determine the condition of rotating

equipment and structural stability in a system.

 It also helps identify noise sources, as severely vibrating equipment is

noisy.

 The vibration monitoring and analysis approach is applicable to items

such as engines, shafts, motors, pumps, gearboxes, bearings,

53 turbines, and compressors. 6/7/2019

 Vibration monitoring with data acquisition system

54 6/7/2019
55 6/7/2019
2. Thermography
 It uses instrumentation designed to monitor the emission of infrared

energy, i.e., temperature, to determine their operating condition.

 By detecting thermal anomalies, i.e., areas that are hotter or colder

than they should be, an experienced surveyor can locate and define
incipient problems within the plant.

 Infrared technology is predicated on the fact that all objects having a

temperature above absolute zero emit energy or radiation.

 Infrared radiation is one form of this emitted energy.

56 6/7/2019
  Infrared emissions, or below red, are the shortest wavelengths of

all radiated energy and are invisible without special

instrumentation.

 Infrared thermography (IRT) is the application of infrared

detection instruments for identifying pictures of temperature
differences (thermogram).
 The test instruments used include noncontact, thermal
measurement, line-of-sight, and imaging systems.
 The noncontact identifies hot/cold spots in energized electrical
equipment, large surfaces such as boilers and building walls.
57 6/7/2019
  However, temperature measurement using infrared methods is

complicated because there are three sources of thermal energy that can
be detected from any object:
 Energy emitted from the object itself,
 Energy reflected from the object, and
 Energy transmitted by the object.

 Only the emitted energy is important in a predictive maintenance

program.

 Reflected and transmitted energies will distort raw infrared data.

 Therefore, the reflected and transmitted energies must be filtered out of

acquired data before a meaningful analysis can be made

58 6/7/2019
Temperature detection of a motor using infrared

59 6/7/2019
 Overheating electrical connection indicates a serious fire hazard

 Indication of bearing overheating, will eventually cause failure

60 6/7/2019
3.Tribology
 Tribology is the general term that refers to design and operating
dynamics of the bearing-lubrication- rotor support structure of
machinery.
 Several tribology techniques can be used for predictive

maintenance:
 Lubricating oil analysis,

 Wear particle analysis.

 Spectrographic analysis,

 Ferrography,

61 6/7/2019
a) Lubricating Oil Analysis
 It is an analysis technique that determines the condition of lubricating

oils used in mechanical and electrical equipment.

 It is not a tool for determining the operating condition of machinery.

 The primary applications for spectrographic or lubricating oil are

 quality control,
 reduction of lubricating oil inventories, and
 determination of the most cost-effective interval for oil change.
 Based on the results of the analysis, lubricants can be changed or

upgraded to meet the specific operating requirements.

 Oil analysis has become an important aid to preventive maintenance.

62 6/7/2019
 b) Wear Particle Analysis

 Wear particle analysis is related to oil analysis only in that the particles

to be studied are collected through drawing a sample of lubricating oil.

 lubricating oil analysis determines the actual condition of the oil

sample,
 wear particle analysis provides direct information about the

wearing condition of the machine train.

 Particles in the lubricant of a machine can provide significant

information about the condition of the machine.

 This information is derived from the study of particle shape,

63
composition, size, and quantity. 6/7/2019
4) Ultrasonic Monitoring
 Like vibration monitoring, ultrasonic monitors the noise generated by

plant machinery or systems to determine their actual operating condition.

 Unlike vibration monitoring, ultrasonic monitors the higher frequencies,

i.e., ultrasound, produced by unique dynamics in process systems or

machines.

 The normal monitoring range for vibration analysis is from less than 1 to

20,000 Hz. Ultrasonic techniques monitor the frequency range between

20,000 and 100 kHz.

 The principal application for ultrasonic monitoring is in leak detection. for

detecting leaks in valves, steam traps, piping, and other process systems.
67 6/7/2019
  Two types of ultrasonic systems: structural and airborne.

 Both provide fast, accurate diagnoses of abnormal operation and leaks.

 Airborne ultrasonic detectors can be used in either a scanning or a contact

mode.

ultrasonic detection.

 One of the main limitations of the airborne ultrasonics (AUs) technique is that
AUs are subjective and dependent on perceived differences in noises.
68 6/7/2019
69 6/7/2019
70 6/7/2019
5) Electrical condition monitoring
 Monitors electrical parameters to detect and rectify faults such as phase

imbalance, insulation breakdown, and high resistance connections.

 Electrical faults are costly and seldom visible.

Electric motor analysis

Insulation Resistance

 Insulation resistance tests are important, although they may not be

conclusive,

 They can reveal flaws in insulation, poor insulating material, the

presence of moisture, and a number of other problems.

71 6/7/2019
Megger
 A megger provides the means to directly measure the condition of motor

insulation.

 This method uses a device which generates a known output, usually

500 V, and directly measures the resistance of the insulation within the
motor.

 When the insulation resistance falls below the prescribed value, it can be

brought to required standards by cleaning and drying the stator and rotor.

 The accuracy of meggering and most insulation resistance tests varies

widely with temperature, humidity, and cleanliness of the parts.

72 Therefore, they may not be absolutely conclusive. 6/7/2019

 TABLE : Electrical Condition Monitoring Techniques for Specific Equipment

Equipment Applicable Monitoring Techniques

Generators Radio frequency monitoring and megohm meter testing

Electrical distribution Turns ratio, transformer oil analysis, power factor, and
transformers harmonic distortion
Electrical distribution switch gear Airborne ultrasonics and visual inspection
and controllers
Motor current spectrum analysis, starting current, motor
circuit analysis, megohm meter testing, conductor
Electrical motors complex impedance, surge testing, and high potential
testing

Airborne ultrasonics, power factor, harmonic distortion,

Distribution system and high potential testing
Airborne ultrasonics, high potential testing, megohm
Electrical distribution cabling meter testing, and time domain reflectometry
73 6/7/2019
6) Nondestructive testing(NDT):
 This technique can determine material properties and quality of
manufacture for high-value parts/assemblies without damaging the
product or its function.

 NDT needs a program that incorporate factors such as the technique to

be used, number and orientation of samples, frequency, location, the
failure mode each sample should address, and the information to be
gained from each sample.

 Application Areas for Specific NDT Techniques and Limitations are:

74 6/7/2019
 NDT Technique Application Areas
Ultrasonic testing Metal components including weld
(imaging) deposits and specialized applications for
plastics or composite materials
Dye penetrant Nonporous materials (those chemically
inspections compatible with the dye and developer)
Hydrostatic Components and completely assembled
testing systems containing pressurized fluids or
gases
Radiography ( x- Metal components including weld
ray) deposits and, possibly, specialized
applications for plastics or composite
materials
Magnetic particle Materials that conduct electric current and Applicable only to those materials that conduct electric
testing magnetic lines of flux
Eddy current Detect defects such as seams, cracks,
testing holes, or lamination separation on both
flat sheets and more complex cross-
sections. Also, monitor the thickness of
metallic sheets, plates, and tube walls
75
Limitations
One-dimensional, thus defects that parallel the axis of
the test will not be apparent.
Minute surface discontinuities such as machining marks
will become readily apparent.
Over-pressurization can result in unintended damage to
the system; cleanliness and fluid chemistry control must
be compatible with system operating standards.
Effective application requires expensive equipment,
properly
trained technicians to interpret images, and extensive
safety precautions.
current and influence magnetic lines of flux. Also, small
areas between the two electrodes can only be inspected
effectively.
Limited to shallow subsurface and surface defects.
Also, due to the tendency of eddy currents to flow
parallel to the surface to which the exciting field is
applied, some laminar
discontinuities’ orientations parallel to this surface tend
to remain undetected. 6/7/2019
76 6/7/2019
 PDM Advantages and Disadvantage
Advantages
 Increased component operational life/availability.

 Allows for preemptive corrective actions.

 Decrease in equipment or process downtime.

 Decrease in costs for parts and labor.

 Better product quality.

 Improved worker and environmental safety.

 Improved worker moral.

 Energy savings.
Disadvantage
 Increased investment in diagnostic equipment.

 Increased investment in staff training.

 Savings potential not readily seen by management

6/7/2019
77  It depends heavily on information and the correct interpretation of the information.
 Summary
RF Emission Detection
Predictive Maintenance (PDM)
Ultrasonic Emission Detection
 PDM is based upon knowing the
Infrared Detection
condition of equipment in a system.
Visual Detection
 PDM means using technologies that tell

us what will fail in the future, not what

is failing right now.
 Predictions come from monitoring the

condition of equipment as it is
operating.
Here are some ways to measure equipment condition. 

 There are many benefits to conditions-based

maintenance including lowering cost,
improving system performance and enhancing
78 6/7/2019
worker safety.
 4) Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM)

RCM Definition and Concepts

 Reliability centered maintenance (RCM) is a systematic process used

to determine what has to be accomplished to ensure that any physical

facility is able to continuously meet its designed functions in its
current operating context.

 RCM is a method which identifies applicable and effective

maintenance tasks needed to maintain the inherent reliability of

equipment at minimum cost.
79 6/7/2019
  Any organization can benefit from RCM if its breakdowns account for

more than 20 to 25% of the total maintenance workload.

 RCM basic premise is that:-

 if machinery and plant systems are properly designed, installed,

operated, and maintained, they will not fail, and their useful life is
almost infinite – except instantaneous failures.

 Basically, RCM methodology deals with some key issues not dealt with by

other maintenance programs.

 It recognizes that all equipment in a facility is not of equal

80 importance to either the process or facility safety. 6/7/2019

  An important aspect of this philosophy is:

 To prioritize systems by assigning levels of criticality based on the

consequences of failure.

 RCM leads to a maintenance program that focuses PM on specific

failure modes likely to occur.

 A logical way of identifying what equipment is required to be

maintained on a PM basis rather than a let-it-fail-then-fix-it basis.

 Many of you have heard the phrases:-

 “don’t fix it until it breaks” or

81  “don’t break it by trying to fix it” 6/7/2019

 RCM Goals and Principles

Important goals of RCM

 To develop design-associated priorities that facilitate PM.

 To gather information useful for improving the design of items

with proven unsatisfactory, inherent reliability.

 To develop PM-related tasks that can reinstate reliability and

safety to their inherent levels

82 6/7/2019
 RCM principles
 RCM is system/equipment focused.

 RCM is concerned more with maintaining system function as opposed to

maintaining individual component function.

 Safety and economics drive RCM.

 Safety is of paramount importance, thus it must be ensured at any cost

and then cost effectiveness becomes the criterion.

 RCM is function-oriented.

 an instrumental role in preserving system function, not just operability.

83 6/7/2019
  Design limitations are acknowledged by RCM.

 The goal is to maintain the inherent reliability of design that can only be

made through design rather than maintenance.

 RCM is reliability-centered.

 not overly concerned with simple failure rate, but on the relationship

between operating age and failures.

 An unsatisfactory condition is defined as a failure by RCM.

 A failure could be either a loss of acceptable quality or a loss of function.

84 6/7/2019
 RCM is a living system.

 RCM collects information from the results achieved and feeds it back to improve

design and future maintenance.

 Three types of maintenance tasks along with run-to-failure are

acknowledged by RCM:

 Failure-finding:- to discover hidden functions that have failed without

providing any indication of pending failure.

 Time-directed:- tasks are scheduled as considered necessary or when

appropriate.

 Condition-directed:- are conducted as the conditions indicate for their need.

85 Run-to-failure is a conscious decision in RCM. 6/7/2019

  RCM tasks must be effective.

 The tasks must be cost-effective and technically sound.

 RCM uses a logic tree to screen maintenance tasks.

 This provides consistency in the maintenance of all types of equipment.

 RCM tasks must be applicable.

 Tasks must reduce the occurrence of failures or ameliorate secondary

damage resulting from failure.

86 6/7/2019
 RCM Process and Associated
Questions
 Initially the RCM process is applied during the design and

development phase,

 And then reapplied, as appropriate, during the operational phase

to sustain an effective maintenance program based on experience

in the field.

87 6/7/2019
 Basic Questions of RCM
1. What are the functions and associated expected levels of the facility

performance in its current operating context?

2. How might it fail to meet its assigned functions?

3. What are the reasons for each functional failure or failure mode?

4. What are the effects of each failure?

5. How does each failure matter?

6. What remedial measures should be taken to prevent or predict each

failure?
7. What measures should be taken in the event of not finding a suitable

proactive task?

88 6/7/2019
 Who Answers These Questions?

 RCM Teams May Include:

 Maintenance Supervisor

 Maintenance Planner

 Craftsmen

 Operations Supervisor

 Operator

 Engineer

 Building Manager

 RCM Facilitator
89 6/7/2019
 Basic RCM steps
1. Identify important items with respect to maintenance.

 Usually, maintenance important items are identified using techniques such

as failure mode effects and criticality analysis (FMECA) and fault tree
analysis (FTA).

2. Obtain appropriate failure data.

 In determining occurrence probabilities and assessing criticality, the

availability of data on part failure rate, operator error probability, and

inspection efficiency is essential.

 These types of data come from field experience, generic failure databanks,

90 etc. 6/7/2019
 3. Develop fault tree analysis data.

 Probabilities of occurrence of fault events - basic, intermediate, and top

events - are calculated as per combinatorial properties of the logic elements in
the fault tree.

4. Apply decision logic to critical failure modes.

 The decision logic is designed to lead, by asking standard assessment

questions, to the most desirable preventive maintenance task combinations.

 The same logic is applied to each crucial mode of failure of each maintenance-
important item.

91 6/7/2019
 5. Classify maintenance requirements.

6. Implement RCM decisions.

 Task frequencies and intervals are set/enacted as part of the overall

maintenance strategy or plan.

7. Apply sustaining - engineering on the basis of field experience.

 Once the system/equipment start operating, the real-life data

begin to accumulate.

 At that time, one of the most urgent steps is to re-evaluate all

RCM-associated default decisions.

92 6/7/2019
 RCM Components
 RCM integrates:-

 Preventive Maintenance (PM),

 Predictive Testing and Inspection (PT&I),

 Reactive maintenance and,

 Proactive Maintenance

 These principal maintenance strategies, rather than being applied

independently, are optimally integrated

 To take advantage of their respective strengths, and

 Maximize facility and equipment reliability while minimizing life-cycle

93
costs. 6/7/2019
 a) Reactive Maintenance

 When reactive maintenance is the only type of maintenance practiced:

 A high replacement of part inventories,

 poor use of maintenance effort, and

 high percentage of unplanned maintenance activities are typical.

 Reactive maintenance can be practiced effectively only if it is carried out as

a conscious decision, based on the conclusions of an RCM analysis that:-

 compares risk and cost of failure with the cost of maintenance needed to

mitigate that risk and failure cost.

 A criteria for determining the priority of replacing or repairing the failed

94
item/equipment in the reactive maintenance program is: 6/7/2019
 Reactive maintenance priority classifications
Priority Priority Criteria Based on System/Equipment Failure
Description Level Consequences
Emergency I  Serious and an immediate impact on mission,
 Safety of life/property is under threat
Urgent II  Serious and an impending impact on mission
 Continuity of facility operation is threatened
Priority III  Significant and adverse effect on project is imminent
 Degradation in quality of mission support

Routine IV  Insignificant impact on mission

 Existence of redundancy
Discretionary V  Resources are available
 Impact on mission is negligible
Deferred VI  Unavailability of resources
95  Negligible impact on mission
 b) Preventive Maintenance

 Helps to reduce the frequency and severity of unplanned

failures.

 PM can be costly and ineffective if it is the only type of

maintenance practiced.

Determining PM Tasks and Monitoring Periodicities'

 The main objectives in monitoring is:

 To determine item/equipment condition and to establish

a trend to forecast future item/equipment condition.

96 6/7/2019
 The following approaches are useful for setting initial periodicity:

 Failure anticipation from past experience:

 In some cases, failure history of equipment and personal experience

can provide, to a certain degree, an intuitive feel as when to expect a

failure.

 Failure distribution statistics:

 when statistics are used to determine the basis for selecting

periodicities, the failure distribution and the probability of failure must

be known.
97 6/7/2019
  Conservative approach:

 The common practice in the industrial sector is to monitor the

equipment monthly/weekly when good monitoring methods and

adequate information are unavailable.

 Often, this leads to excessive monitoring.

 In situations when impending failure becomes apparent through the

use of trending or other predictive analysis techniques, the monitoring

interval can be shortened.

98 6/7/2019
 c. Predictive Testing and Inspection(PTI)

 PTI replaces arbitrarily timed maintenance tasks with

maintenance that is scheduled only when warranted by equipment

condition.

 Continuing analysis of equipment condition – monitoring data

allows planning and scheduling of maintenance or repairs in

advance of catastrophic and functional failure.

 PTI must not be the sole type of maintenance practiced because

it does not lend itself to all types of equipment or possible failure

modes.
99 6/7/2019
 d. Proactive maintenance

 Improves maintenance through actions such as better design,

workmanship, installation, scheduling, and maintenance procedures.

 The characteristics of proactive maintenance are:

 practicing a continuous process of improvement,

 Using feedback and communications to ensure that changes in

design or procedures are rapidly made available to designers and
managers.

 Ensuring that nothing affecting maintenance occurs in total

100
isolation, 6/7/2019
  Optimizing and tailoring maintenance methods and technologies

to each application.

 Using root-cause failure analysis and predictive analysis to

maximize maintenance effectiveness.

 Conducts periodic evaluation of the technical content and

performance interval of maintenance tasks,

 Integrating functions that support maintenance into maintenance

program planning.

 Employing a life-cycle view of maintenance and supporting

functions.
101 6/7/2019
 Basic techniques employed by proactive maintenance to extend equipment life.
102 6/7/2019
 RCM Effectiveness Measurement Indicators

 The numerical indicators or metrics are considered the most useful

because they are objective, precise, quantitative, and more easily

trended than words, as well as consisting of a descriptor and a
benchmark.
 A descriptor may be defined as a word or group of words

detailing the units, the function, and the process under

consideration for measurement.
 A benchmark is a numerical expression of a set goal.

111 6/7/2019
  Equipment Availability

 EA = equipment availability,

 Hea = number of hours each unit of equipment is available to run at capacity,

 THrp = total number of hours during reporting period

The benchmark figure for this metric is 96%.

 Emergency Percentage Index

 EP = emergency percentage,

 Hej = total number of hours worked on emergency jobs,

 THw = total number of hours works.

The benchmark figure for this indicator is 10% or less 6/7/2019

112
 How to Initiate Reliability Centered Maintenance
Basic steps to move from reactive to RCM program are:

1. Develop a Master equipment list identifying the equipment.

2. Prioritize listed components based on importance or criticality to process.

3. Assign components into logical groupings.

4. Determine the type and number of maintenance activities required and

periodicity using:
 Manufacturer technical manuals
 Machinery history
 Root cause analysis findings - Why did it fail?
113  Good engineering judgment 6/7/2019
 5. Assess the size of maintenance staff.

6. Identify tasks that may be performed by operations maintenance

personnel.

7. Analyze equipment failure modes and impacts on components and

systems.

8. Identify effective maintenance tasks or mitigation strategies.

114 6/7/2019
 RCM Advantages

 Improvement:

 in safety and environmental protection,

 in product quality,

 in the useful life of costly items,

 maintenance database,

 in teamwork,

 in maintenance cost-effectiveness,

 greater motivation of individuals, and

 higher plant availability and reliability.

115 6/7/2019
 Reasons For RCM Failures

 Occasionally, RCM has resulted in failure due to:

 An analysis conducted at too low a level,

 Too much emphasis placed on failure data,

 The application was superfluous or hurried,

 Computers were used to drive the process,

 Only one individual was assigned to apply RCM,

 Only the maintenance department on its own applied RCM, and

 Manufacturers/ equipment vendors were asked to apply RCM on

their own.

116 6/7/2019
 Example:-1 Tower cooling system
 System: chilled water system

 Function: Provide chilled water at specified, Flow Rate & Temperature

to a specific room.

 Analysis: (applying FMECA analyses method)

 To determine the criticality and probability of occurrence of

failure lets investigate with the mode, effect and root causes of the
selected system failure.

117 6/7/2019
FMECA analysis:
The criticality /severity categories adapted by the automotive
industry is given in the table below:
 Ranking: may be based on the operating hour, day, cycle.. etc.
6/7/2019 119
 Determining functional failures & failure mods
 Based on the above severity category it is estimated that electric
motor is most critical.

6/7/2019 120
 Determination of Functional failures, failure mods & root causes of
electric motor of the system.

6/7/2019 121
• This focuses on one failure mode, the seized bearing. Similar
information will be needed for each failure mode.

6/7/2019 122
 Will failure of the equipment items
No have a direct and adverse effect on
safety or critical mission operation? Yes

Is the item expendable? Can redesign solve the problem and cost effectively?
No
No Yes
Is there a PT&I Technology that will monitor Redesign
Yes condition and give sufficient warning
(alert/alarm) of an impending failure?
No
Yes
Is there an effective PM task that Is PT&I cost and priority justified?
will minimize functional failure?
Yes
No No
Define PT&I task
Is establishing redundancy Yes and schedule
cost and priority justified?
Define PM task
No Yes
and schedule

Accept
6/7/2019 risk
Install redundant unit (s) Logic tree analysis
123
 Thank you!!!

Q?????
124 6/7/2019