Chapter 6

Failure Analysis
Al Emran Ismail, PhD
Introduction
1. Collection of background data and selection of samples
2. Preliminary examination of the failed part (visual examination and
record keeping)
3. Nondestructive testing
4. Mechanical testing (including hardness and toughness testing)
5. Selection, identification, preservation, and/or cleaning of specimens
(and comparison with parts that have not failed)
6. Macroscopic examination and analysis and photographic
documentation (fracture surfaces, secondary cracks, and other
surface phenomena)
Introduction
7. Microscopic examination and analysis (electron microscopy may be
necessary)
8. Selection and preparation of metallographic sections
9. Examination and analysis of metallographic specimens
10. Determination of failure mechanism
11. Chemical analysis (bulk, local, surface corrosion products, deposits or
coatings, and microprobe analysis)
12. Analysis by fracture mechanics
13. Testing under simulated service conditions (special tests)
14. Analysis of all the evidence, formulation of conclusions, and writing the
report.
Fracture origin
Examination of a fracture begins with visual scrutiny, which establishes:
I. Whether there is gross evidence of mechanical abuse.
II. Whether there are indications of excessive corrosion.
III. Whether the part is deformed.
IV. Whether there are obvious secondary fractures.
V. Whether the origin of the crack can be readily identified.
VI. Whether the direction of crack propagation can be easily
recognized
Macroscopic examination of fracture surfaces

Surface of a fatigue fracture in a

4330V steel part. Chevron marks
point to origin of fatigue in lower
left corner. Arrows identify shear
rupture along the periphery.
Macroscopic examination of fracture surfaces
Fracture of a steel tube. (a) Fracture surface at
approximately actual size, showing point of crack initiation
(at arrow), chevron and fanlike marks, and development of
shear lips. (b) Fracture-origin area at 5x; note that fracture
nuclei differ in texture from the main fracture surface.
Macroscopic examination of fracture surfaces
Some of the more classic examples of fracture surface topography that
indicates a fracture mode are:
1. Dimpled rupture typical of overstress failures of ductile metals and
alloys.
2. Cleavage facets, typical of transgranular brittle fracture of body-centered
cubic and hexagonal close-packed metals and alloys.
3. Brittle intergranular fracture typical of temper-embrittled steel, where
fracture is due to segregation of an embrittling species to grain
boundaries (such as oxygen in iron or nickel), due to intergranular stress
corrosion cracking or due to hydrogen embrittlement.
4. Stage II striations, typical of some (but not all) fatigue failures
Fracture mechanics in failure analysis
In general, there are two types of conditions that may lead to structural
failure:
1. Net-section instability, where the overall structural cross section
can no longer support the applied load.
2. The critical flaw size (ac) is exceeded by some preexisting
discontinuity, or when subcritical cracking mechanisms (for
example, fatigue, stress-corrosion cracking, creep) reach the critical
crack size.
Fracture mechanics in failure analysis
In this regard, fracture mechanics is an effective tool for evaluating
critical flaw size (ac) that leads to rapid unstable fracture and can help
answer questions during a failure analysis, such as:
1. Where should one look for the transition from subcritical crack
growth to unstable rapid fracture?
2. What was the load on the component at the time of failure?
3. Was the correct material used, and was manufacturing/processing
sound?
4. Was the part designed properly?
5. Did the environment influence the failure?
Metallographic examination
• Metallographic examination of polished, and of polished and etched,
sections by optical microscopy and by electron-optical techniques is a
vital part of failure investigation and should be carried out as a
routine procedure when possible.
• Metallographic examination provides the investigator with a good
indication of the class of material involved and its structure.
• If abnormalities are present, these may be associated with
undesirable characteristics that caused an early failure.
Mechanical testing
1. Hardness testing is the simplest of the mechanical tests and is often
the most versatile tool available to the failure analyst.
2. Among its many applications, hardness testing can be used to assist
in evaluating heat treatment (comparing the hardness of the failed
component with that prescribed by specification), to provide an
estimate of the tensile strength of steel, to detect work hardening,
or to detect softening or hardening caused by overheating,
decarburization, or by carbon or nitrogen pickup.
Assignment X
Find a real case of mechanical failure (in journal).