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INTRODUCTION TO TISSUE
• Tissues are groups of cells that are
similar in structure and function
(tissue=woven)
• There are four primary tissues types:
– Epithelial: covering
– Connective: support
– Nervous: control
– Muscular: movement
• Histology: study of tissues
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• Epithelium (plural: epithelia)
• Sheet of cells that covers a body surface or
lines a body cavity (epithe=laid on, covering)
• Occurs in the body as:
• 1. Covering and lining epithelium:
– Forms the outer layer of the skin, dips into and lines
the open cavities of the cardiovascular, digestive, and
respiratory systems, and covers the walls and organs
of the closed ventral body cavity
• 2. Glandular epithelium:
– Fashions the glands of the body
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• In its role as an interface tissue, epithelium
accomplishes many functions, including:
• 1. Protection
• 2. Absorption
• 3. Filtration
• 4. Excretion
• 5. Secretion
• 6. Sensory Reception
Special Characteristics of Epithelium
• Has many characteristics that distinguish them from other tissue types:
• 1. Cellularity:
– Composed of closely packed cells with little extracellular material between
• 2. Specialized contacts:
– Adjacent epithelial cells are bound together to form continuous sheets by specialized
contacts such as desmosomes and tight junctions
• 3. Polarity:
– Exhibits polarity by having an apical surface (upper free surface exposed to the body exterior
or the cavity of an internal organ)) and a lower attached basal surface
– All epithelia exhibit polarity, meaning that cell regions near the apical surface differ from
those near the basal surface in both structure and function
• Example:
– Some apical surfaces have villi while the basal surface acts as a filter determining which molecules will be allowed
to enter the epithelium
• 4. Supported by connective tissue:
– Supported by the underlying connective tissue (reticular lamina) containing collagen fibers
• 5. Innervated but avascular:
– Nourished by substances diffusing from blood vessels in the underlying connective tissue
• 6. Has a high regeneration capacity:
– Replace lost cells rapidly by cell division
Classification of Epithelia
• Each epithelial tissue is given two
names:
– The first name indicates the number
of layers present:
• Simple (one):
– Composed of a single cell
layer
– Typically found where
absorption and filtration
occur and a thin epithelial
barrier is desirable
• Stratified (more than one):
– Consist of two or more cell
layers stacked one on top of
the other
– Common in high-abrasion
areas where protection is
important, such as the
skin surface and the lining
of the mouth
– The second name describes the
shape of the cells
Classification of Epithelia
Classification of Epithelia
• All epithelial cells have six
(somewhat irregular) sides
• Apical surface view of an epithelial
sheet looks like a honeycomb
– This polyhedral shape allows
the cells to be closely packed
• Cells vary in height
• Three common shapes of
epithelial cells: nucleus will be
the same shape
• 1. Squamous cells are: flattened
and scalelike (squam=scale)
• 2. Cuboidal cells are: boxlike
– Approximately as tall as they are
wide
• 3. Columnar cells are: tall and
column shaped
Classification of Epithelia
Classification of Epithelia
• Simple epithelia are easy to classify by
cell shape because all cells in the layer
usually have the same shape
• Stratified epithelia:
– Cell shapes usually differ among the
different cell layers
– Named according the shape of the cells in
the apical layer
Simple Epithelia
• Concerned with absorption, secretion, and
filtration
• Consist of a single layer and are usually
very thin
• Protection is not one of their specialties
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Pseudostratied Columnar Epithelium
Stratified Epithelia
• Contains two or more cell layers
• Main function is protection
• Regenerate from below:
– The basal cells divide and push apically to replace
the older surface cells
• Consequently more durable than the simple epithelia
– Stratified squamous epithelium is composed of
several layers with the cells on the free surface
being squamous-shaped and the underlying cells
being cuboidal or columnar in shape
– Transitional epithelium forms the lining of the hollow
organs of the urinary system that stretch as they fill
Stratified Squamous Eputhelium
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
• Rare
• Found mostly in the ducts of some of the
larger glands
– Sweat glands
– Mammary glands
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
• Found in limited distribution with small
amounts in the pharynx, male urethra, and
lining some glandular ducts
• Only its apical layer of cells is
columnar
Transitional Epithelium
Glandular Epithelia
• A gland consists of one or more cells that
make and secrete (export) a particular
product:
– This product, called a secretion, is an aqueous
(water-based) fluid that usually contains proteins
• Some release lipid-rich or steroid-rich secretion
• Secretion is an active process:
– Glandular cells obtain needed substances from the
blood and transform them chemically into a product
that is then discharged from the cell
– Notice: the term secretion can refer to BOTH the
gland’s product and the process of making and
releasing that product
Glandular Epithelia
• Classified as to:
– Where they release their products:
• Endocrine: internally secreting
• Exocrine: externally secreting
– Relative cell numbers making up the gland:
– Unicellular: one-celled
» Scattered within epithelial sheets
– Multicellular: many-celled
» Form by invagination (inward growth) or evagination
(outward growth) from an epithelial sheet
Endocrine Glands
• Ductless glands
• Produce hormones: regulatory chemicals
that they secrete by exocytosis directly into
the extracellular space
– From there the hormones enter the blood or lymphatic
fluid and travel to specific target organs
– Each hormone prompts its target organ(s) to respond
in some characteristic way
• Most are complex multicellular organs
– Some are individual hormone-producing cells in
organs (intestines/brain)
Exocrine Glands
• More numerous than endocrine glands
• Secrete their products onto body
surfaces (skin) or into body cavities:
– Unicellular glands directly (exocytosis)
– Multicellular glands via an epithelial-walled
duct that transports the secretion to the
epithelial surface
• Mucous, sweat, oil, salivary glands
• Liver, (bile), pancreas (digestive enzymes)
Unicellular Exocrine Glands
• Only important example of a
unicellular (one-celled) gland
is the goblet cell
• Shaped like a goblet
(drinking glass with a stem)
• (d): Sprinkled in the epithelial
linings of the intestinal and
respiratory tracts amid
columnar cells with other
functions
– In humans produce mucin:
complex glycoprotein that
dissolves in water when
secreted
• Once dissolved, mucin forms
mucus, a slimy coating that
both protects and lubricates
surfaces
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
Unicellular Exocrine Glands (Goblet Cells)
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
• Two basic parts:
– An epithelium-derived duct
– Secretory unit consisting of secretory cells (acini)
• In all BUT the simplest glands, supportive
connective tissue surrounds the secretory unit
and supplies it with blood vessels and nerve
fibers, and forms a fibrous capsule that
extends into the gland proper and divides the
gland into lobes
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Structural Classification
• On the basis of their
duct structures
– Simple:
• Unbranched duct
EXOCRINE GLANDS
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Structural Classification
• Compound:
– Branched duct
– Compond: mulitple
branched ducts
– Further classified by their
secretory units:
• Tubular: if the secretory cells
form tubes
• Alveolar: if the secretory
cells form small, flask-like
sacs (alveolus=small hollow
cavity)
• Tubuloalveolar: if they have
BOTH types of secretory
units (tubes and alveolar)
– NOTE: acinar is used
interchangeably with
alveolar
EXOCRINE GLANDS
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Functional Classification
• Modes of Secretion:
– Merocrine Glands:
• Secrete their products
by exocytosis as
produced
• Secretory cells are not
altered in any way
• Examples:
– Sweat glands
– Pancreas
– Salivary glands
Merocrine Gland
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Functional Classification
• Modes of Secretion:
– Holocrine Glands:
• Accumulate their products
within them until they
rupture
– They are replaced by the
division of underlying
cells
• Secretion includes the
synthesized product plus
dead cell fragments
(holo=all)
• Examples:
– Sebaceous (oil) glands
Holocrine Gland
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Functional Classification
• Modes of Secretion:
– Apocrine Glands:
• Present in all animals but questionable in humans
• Accumulated their products just beneath the free
surface
– Eventually, the apex of the cell pinches off (apo=from
off), releasing the secretory granules and a small amount
of cytoplasm
– Example: controversy in humans
» Some believe mammary glands are apocrine
while others say merocrine
Connective Tissue
• Found everywhere in the body
• It is the most abundant and widely distributed of the
primary tissues
– Amounts vary in particular organs
• Example:
– Skin is primarily connective tissue
– Brain has very little connective tissue
• Four main classes and several subclasses:
• 1. Connective tissue proper:
– Includes fat and fibrous tissue of ligaments
• 2. Cartilage
• 3. Bone tissue
• 4. Blood
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Does more than just connect body parts
– It has many forms and functions
• Major functions include:
– Binding and support
– Protection
– Insulation
– Transportation
Common Characteristics of
Connective Tissue
• 1. Common origin: All connective tissue arises
from an embryonic tissue called mesenchyme
• 2. Degrees of vascularity: Connective tissue
ranges from avascular (cartilage) to poorly
vascularized (dense connective tissue) to highly
vascularized
• 3. Extracellular matrix: Connective tissue is
composed mainly of nonliving extracellular
matrix that separates the cells of the tissue
– Enables connective tissue to withstand physical
trauma
Connective Tissue Origins
EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Structural Elements of Connective Tissue
• Cutis=skin
• Cutaneous membrane, or skin, is an organ system consisting of
a keratinized squamous epithelium (epidermis) firmly attached to a
thick layer of dense irregular connective tissue (dermis)
• Unlike other epithelial membranes, the cutaneous membrane is
exposed to the air and is a dry membrane
MEMBRANES
COVERING and LINING MEMBRANES
Mucous Membranes (b)
• Mucosae
• Mucous membranes line body cavities that open to the exterior, such as
those of hollow organs of the digestive, respiratory, and urogenital tracts
• They are ALL wet (moist) membranes bathed by secretions or, in the
case of urinary mucosa, urine
• Name mucosa refers to the location of the membrane, NOT its cell
composition, which varies
MEMBRANES
COVERING and LINING MEMBRANES
Mucous Membranes (b)
• Serosae
• Moist membranes found in closed ventral body cavities
– Serosa: moist membrane found in closed ventral body cavities
– Visceral serosa: the part of the double-layered membrane that lines the outer surfaces
of organs within the ventral body cavity
– Parietal serosa: the part of the double-layered membrane that lines the walls of the
ventral body cavity
• Serous membranes consist of simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium) resting on
a thin layer of loose connective (areolar) tissue
MEMBRANES
COVERING and LINING MEMBRANES
Serous Membranes (c)
• Mesothelial cells enrich the fluid that filters from the capillaries in the associated
connective tissue with hyaluronic acid (GAGs)
– Result is the thin, clear serous fluid that lubricates the facing surfaces of the parietal
(lines the walls of the ventral body cavity) and visceral layers (lines outer surface of
the organ), so that they slide across each other easily
• Named according to their site and specific organ associations:
• Example:
– Pleura: serosa lining the thoracic wall and covering the lungs
– Pericardium: serosa lining the heart
– Peritoneums: serosa ling the abdominopelvic cavity and viscera
MEMBRANES
NERVOUS TISSUE
• Nervous tissue is the main component
of the nervous system (brain, spinal
cord, and nerves), which regulates and
controls body functions
• Nervous tissue is composed of two
types of cells:
– Neurons are specialized cells that generate
and conduct electrical impulses
– Supporting cells are nonconductive cells that
support, insulate, and protect the neurons
NERVE TISSUE
MUSCLE TISSUE
• Muscle tissues are highly cellular, well-vascularized tissues
responsible for movement
• Muscle cells (muscle fibers) possess myofilaments:
– Elaborate versions of the actin and myosin filaments that bring about
movement or contraction in all muscle cell types
• There are three types of muscular tissue:
– Skeletal muscle is packaged by connective tissue sheets into organs
called skeletal muscles that are attached to the skeleton and produces
voluntary body movement
– Cardiac muscle is responsible for the involuntary movement of the
heart
• Found ONLY in the walls of the heart
– Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the hollow organs (digestive
and urinary tract organs, uterus, and blood vessels):
• No striations
• Acts to squeeze substances through these organs by alternately
contracting and relaxing
• Involuntary
SKELETAL MUSCLE
CARDIAC MUSCLE
SMOOTH MUSCLE
TISSUE REPAIR
• When tissue injury occurs, the responses
usually take place in connective tissue
• Tissue repair occurs in two ways:
– Regeneration:
• Replacement of destroyed tissue with the
same kind of tissue
– Fibrosis:
• Involves proliferation of fibrous connective
tissue called scar tissue
Steps of Tissue Repair
• Three steps are involved in the tissue repair process:
• 1. Inflammation: (a)
– Tissue trauma causes injured tissue cells, macrophages, mast cells,
and others to release inflammatory chemicals, which cause the
capillaries to dilate and become very permeable
• Allows white blood cells (neutrophils, monocytes,) and plasma
fluid rich in clotting proteins, antibodies, and other substances
to seep into the injured area
• The leaked clotting proteins construct a clot:
– Stops the loss of blood
– Holds the edges of the wound together isolating the injured
area preventing bacteria, toxins, or other harmful substances
from spreading to surrounding tissues
– Part exposed to the air quickly dries and hardens forming a
scab
– Leaves excess fluid, bits of destroyed cells, and other debris in the
area, which are eventually removed via lymphatic vessels or
phagocytized by macrophages
TISSUE REPAIR
Steps of Tissue Repair
• 2.Organization restores the blood supply (b):
– Blood clot is replaced by granulation tissue:
• A delicate pink tissue composed of several elements:
– Contains capillaries that grow in from nearby areas and lay down a
new capillary bed
» Granulation tissue is actually named for these capillaries,
which protrude nublike from its surface, giving it a granular
appearance
– Proliferating fibroblasts produce growth factors as well as new
collagen fibers to bridge the gap
» Some fibroblasts have contractile properties that pull the
margins of the wound together
– Macrophages digest the original blood clot
– Collagen fiber deposit continues
– Granulation tissue, destined to become scar tissue (a
permanent fibrous patch), is highly resistant to infection
because it produces bacteria-inhibiting substances
TISSUE REPAIR
Steps of Tissue Repair
• 3.Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair (c):
– Surface epithelium begins to regenerate (b)
• Growing under the scab, which soon detaches
• As the fibrous tissue beneath matures and contracts, the regenerating
epithelium thickens until it finally resembles that of the adjacent skin (c)
– End result is a fully regenerated epithelium, and an underlying area of
scar tissue
• May be invisible, or visible as a thin white line, depending on the severity of
the wound
• The repair process described (1,2,3) follows healing of a wound (cut,
scrape, puncture) that breaches an epithelial barrier
• In pure infections (pimple or sore throat), healing is solely by
regeneration
– Usually no clot or scarring
– Only severe (destructive) infections lead to scarring
TISSUE REPAIR
TISSUE REPAIR
TISSUE REPAIR
Regenerative Capacity of Different Tissues