Electronic Devices

BJT
Bipolar Junction Transistor

 Bipolar: both electrons and holes are involved in operation of

the device
 Junction: Operation relies on PN junctions
 Transistor: current flowing between two terminals is controlled
by a third terminal
 Since mid 1970’s, the higher density and lower power of MOS
technology steadily eroded the BJT’s early dominance
 BJTs are still preferred in some digital-circuit and analog-
circuit applications because of their high speed and superior
gain
 Faster circuit speed (+)
 Larger power dissipation (–)
• Both, pnp and npn transistors can be thought as two very
closely spaced pn-junctions.
• The base must be small to allow interaction between the
two pn-junctions.
 p+ n p

EC
Ei
EF
EV

Electrostatic Potential
 p+ n p

Electric Field

Charge Density
 Doping
NE NB > NC
• Current components:
• IB1 = Electrons injected from
B to E : IEn
• IB2 = electrons that replace
the recombined electrons in
the base
ICn •IB3 = Electrons from C to B
IEn (Reverse sat. current): ICn

IE = IEp + IEn
IC = ICp + ICn
IB = IE – IC
= IEn + (IEp – ICp) - ICn

ICp
IEp
 Important features of a good transistor:
 Injected minority carriers do not recombine in the neutral
base region  short base, W << Lp for pnp transistor
 Emitter current is comprised almost entirely of carriers
injected into the base rather than carriers injected into the
emitter  the emitter must be doped heavier than the base
BJT Performance Parameters

IEn Emitter (Injection) Efficiency

ICn
𝐼𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝐸𝑝
𝛾= =
𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐸𝑝 + 𝐼𝐸𝑛

IEp ICp 𝐼𝐸𝑝 ≫ 𝐼𝐸𝑛 ⇒ 𝛾⟶1

Base Transport Factor Requires NE NB

𝐼𝐶𝑝 Common Base Current Gain
𝛼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶𝑝 𝐼𝐶𝑝
𝐼𝐸𝑝
𝛼0 = =
Approaches 1 if base 𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐸𝑝 + 𝐼𝐸𝑛
recombination is small 𝐼𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝐶𝑝
=
Requires thin base with 𝐼𝐸𝑝 + 𝐼𝐸𝑛 𝐼𝐸𝑝
low doping
= 𝛾 𝛼𝑇
Collector Current

Collector current in common-base configuration:

𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑝 + 𝐼𝐶𝑛

= 𝛼0 𝐼𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶𝑛

= 𝛼0 𝐼𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 ICB0 :collector current when IE = 0

Collector current in common-emitter configuration:
𝛼0 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐸 +
1 − 𝛼0 1 − 𝛼0
= 𝛽 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 = 1 + 𝛽 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂

Common Emitter current Gain 𝛼0 𝐼𝐶

𝛽= ≈
1 − 𝛼0 𝐼𝐵
I-V Characteristics: General Considerations

Approximations for derivation of BJT ideal IV-characteristics

 Low level injection
 No R-G currents in the E-B and C-B depletion regions
 One-dimensional current flow
 No drift current in base region
 p+ n p Emitter Region Solution
 Diffusion equation:
E B C
𝑑 2 Δ𝑛𝐸 Δ𝑛𝐸
′′ 2
− =0
𝑑𝑥 𝐿𝐸
x’’ x’
0’’ 0 W 0’
 Boundary conditions:
 General solution:
nE ( x  )  0
nE ( x)  A1e  x LE  A2e x LE
nE ( x  0)  nE0 (e qVEB kT
 1)
 x LE
 Solution 
nE ( x )  nE0 (e qVEB kT
 1)e

d nE DE
I En  qADE  qA nE0 (e qVEB kT
 1)
dx x0 LE
 p+ n p Collector Region Solution
 Diffusion equation:
E B C
𝑑 2 Δ𝑛𝐶 Δ𝑛𝐶
′2
− =0
𝑑𝑥 𝐿𝐶
x’’ x’
0’’ 0 W 0’
 Boundary conditions:
 General solution:
nC ( x  )  0
nC ( x  0)  nC0 (e qVCB kT  1) nC ( x)  A1e  x LC  A2e x LC

 Solution nC ( x)  nC0 (eqVCB kT

 1)e  x LC

d nC DC
I Cn  qADC   qA nC0 (e qVCB kT
 1)
dx x0 LC
 p+ n p Base Region Solution
 Diffusion equation:
E B C
𝑑 2 Δ𝑝𝐵 Δ𝑝𝐵
2
− =0
𝑑𝑥 𝐿𝐵
x’’ x’
0’’ 0 W 0’
 Boundary conditions:
 General solution:
pB (0)  pB0 (eqVEB kT
 1)
pB ( x)  A1e  x LB  A2e x LB
pB (W )  pB0 (eqVCB kT
 1)

 Solution sinh (W  x) LB 

pB ( x)  pB0 (e qVEB kT
 1)
sinh(W LB )
sinh( x LB )
 pB0 (eqVCB kT
 1)
sinh(W LB )
Carrier distribution in active mode biasing

pB(0)
nC(0’)

nE(0’’)
pB(x) nC(x’)
nE(x’’) nC0
nE0
pB0 pB(W)
Carrier distribution: Comparison of different biasing modes
Diffusion Current Components
 To obtain IEp and Icp ; differente pB(x) at x=0 and x=W

d pB
I Ep  qADB
dx x 0
DB  cosh(W LB ) qVEB 1 
 qA pB0  (e kT
 1)  (e qVCB kT
 1) 
LB  sinh(W LB ) sinh(W LB ) 

d pB
I Cp  qADB
dx x W
DB  1 cosh(W LB ) qVCB 
 qA pB0  (e qVEB kT
 1)  (e kT
 1) 
LB  sinh(W LB ) sinh(W LB ) 
Terminal Currents

 Since I E  I En  I Ep , I C  I Cn  I Cp

 DE DB cosh(W LB )  qVEB
 Then  I E  qA  nE0  pB0  (e
kT
 1)
 LE LB sinh(W LB ) 
 DB 1  qVCB kT 
 pB0  (e  1) 
 LB sinh(W LB )  

 D 1  qVEB kT
 I C  qA   1)
 L B0 sinh W L  
B
p (e
 B B 

 DC DB cosh(W LB )  qVCB 
 nC0  pB0  (e
kT
 1) 
 LC LB sinh(W LB )  

 IB  IE  IC
Performance Parameters

 Active Mode Biasing: VEB > 0; VCB < 0

qVEB qVCB
⇒ exp ≫ 1 ≫ exp
kT kT

 For Thin Base BJT (Provides higher current gain)

𝑊
≪1
𝐿𝐵

 Using the limit value lim⁡ sinh 𝜉 = 𝜉

𝜉→0
𝜉2
lim⁡ cosh 𝜉 = 1 + ≈1
2
𝜉→0
 sinh (W  x) LB 
pB ( x)  pB0 (e qVEB kT
 1)
sinh(W LB )
sinh( x LB )
 pB0 (eqVCB kT
 1)
sinh(W LB )

𝑥
≈ Δ𝑝𝐵 0 1−
𝑊
 𝐼𝐸𝑝 1 1
𝛾= =
𝐼𝐸𝑝 + 𝐼𝐸𝑛 𝐷𝐸 𝐿𝐵 𝑁𝐵 sinh(𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) short 𝐷𝐸 𝑁𝐵 𝑊
1+ base 1+
𝐷𝐵 𝐿𝐸 𝑁𝐸 cosh(𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) 𝐷𝐵 𝑁𝐸 𝐿𝐸

𝐼𝐶𝑝 1 1
𝛼𝑇 = = short 2
𝐼𝐸𝑝 cosh (𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) 1 W
base 1+
2 LB
 1
𝛼0 = 𝛾𝛼𝑇 =
𝑊 𝐷 𝐿 𝑁 𝑊
cosh + 𝐸 𝐵 𝐵 sinh
𝐿𝐵 𝐷𝐵 𝐿𝐸 𝑁𝐸 𝐿𝐵
1
short 2
𝐷 𝑁 𝑊 1 𝑊
base 1+ 𝐸 𝐵 +
𝐷𝐵 𝑁𝐸 𝐿𝐸 2 𝐿𝐵

1 1
𝛽0 = =
1 𝐷𝐸 𝐿𝐵 𝑁𝐵 𝑊
cosh(𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) + 𝐷 𝐿 𝑁 sinh 𝐿 − 1
𝛼0 − 1 𝐵 𝐸 𝐸 𝐵

1
short 2
𝐷𝐸 𝑁𝐵 𝑊 1 𝑊
base +
𝐷𝐵 𝑁𝐸 𝐿𝐸 2 𝐿𝐵
EC

Ei
EF
EV
• Based on the doping profile, PN-junctions can be
separated into two major categories:
- step junctions
- linearly-graded junctions

ND  N A ND  N A
ax

p-side n-side p-side n-side

Step junction Linearly-graded junction

Energy Level Diagram: p-n junction in thermal equilibrium

Neutral p Depletion Neutral n

Space Charge

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rmation3/index.html
 Chapter 5 pn Junction Electrostatics
Qualitative Electrostatics

 Equilibrium condition

Band diagram

Electrostatic potential

1
V   ( Ec  Eref )
q
Qualitative Electrostatics …….

 Equilibrium condition

Electric field
Zero in the neutral
dV
region E
dx

Charge density

𝑑ℇ ρ
=
dx ϵs
Built-in potential Vbi

At equilibrium, total hole or electron current is zero

𝑑𝑝
𝐽𝑝 = 𝑞𝜇𝑝 𝑝ℇ − 𝑞𝐷𝑝 =0
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑝 𝜇𝑝 𝑑𝒱
= ℇ ℇ=−
𝑑𝑥
𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝐷𝑝
𝜇𝑝 𝑞
=
𝐷𝑝 𝑘𝑇
1 𝑑𝑝 𝑞 𝑑𝒱
=−
𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑝 𝑞
=− 𝑑𝒱
𝑝 𝑘𝑇
 𝑞 𝑝𝑛
− 𝒱𝑛 − 𝒱𝑝 = ln
𝑘𝑇 𝑝𝑝

Vbi is called the built-in potential

or contact potential

𝑘𝑇 𝑝𝑝 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝒱𝑛 − 𝒱𝑝 = 𝑉𝑏𝑖 = ln = ln 2
𝑞 𝑝𝑛 𝑞 𝑛𝑖

𝑝𝑝 𝑛𝑛
Another useful form = = 𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝑏𝑖 /𝑘𝑇
𝑝𝑛 𝑛𝑝
Alternative derivation for Vbi based on band diagram

qVbi  ( EF  Ei )n side  ( Ei  EF )p side

 For non-degenerately doped material,

n  ND 
( EF  Ei )n-side  kT ln    kT ln  
 i
n  i 
n  NA ND 
qVbi  kT ln  2 
 p  NA   ni 
( Ei  EF )p-side  kT ln    kT ln  
 ni   ni 
Depletion
Approximation

Rectangular
approximation for
smooth transition
DEPLETION
APPROXIMATION.
Calculating Electric Field
 On the p-side, ρ = –qNA
dE qN A

dx S
 (C/cm3 ) qN A
E ( x)   x  c1
+eNd S
qN A
-xp E ( x)   ( x  xp )
+xn S
with boundary E(–xp)  0
-eNa
-xp  On the n-side, ρ = qND
qN D
+xn E ( x)   ( xn  x)
S
- m with boundary E(xn)  0
𝑞𝑁𝐷 𝑥𝑛 𝑞𝑁𝐴 𝑥𝑝
ℇ𝑚 = =
𝜖𝑠 𝜖𝑠
Calculating Electrostatic Potential -xp
+xn
𝑑𝒱
ℇ=−
𝑑𝑥 - m

Integrate the above equation with boundary condition:

= 0 at x= -xp
For p-side 𝒱(𝑥) 𝑥
𝑑𝒱′ = − ℇ 𝑑𝑥 ′
0 −𝑥 𝑝

𝑥
𝑞𝑁𝐴
𝒱(𝑥) = − − (𝑥′ + 𝑥𝑝 )𝑑𝑥′
−𝑥 𝑝 𝜖𝑠

𝑞𝑁𝐴 2
= 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑝 ⋯ − 𝑥𝑝 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0
2𝜖𝑠

Similar calculation can be done for n-side to obtain (x)

How much is the depletion region width W ?

The definite integral from –xp to xn gives built-in potential Vbi

𝑥𝑛
𝑉𝑏𝑖 = − ℇ 𝑑𝑥
−𝑥 𝑝

𝑞𝑁𝐴 2 𝑞𝑁𝐷 2
= 𝑥𝑝 + 𝑥𝑛 Recall
2𝜖𝑠 2𝜖𝑠
𝑞𝑁𝐷 𝑥𝑛 𝑞𝑁𝐴 𝑥𝑝
ℇ𝑚 𝑥𝑝 ℇ𝑚 𝑥𝑛 ℇ𝑚 = =
= + 𝜖𝑠 𝜖𝑠
2 2
ℇ𝑚 𝑊
𝑉𝑏𝑖 = We still don’t know xn and xp
2
How to obtain xn and xp ?

𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑊 and 𝑥𝑝 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑥𝑛 𝑁𝐷
Eliminate xp to obtain
𝑁𝐴
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑊
𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁𝐷
We know that
ℇ𝑚 𝑊 𝑞𝑁𝐷 𝑥𝑛
𝑉𝑏𝑖 = = 𝑊
2 2𝜖𝑠
We get 2𝜖𝑠 1 1
𝑊= + 𝑉
𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷 𝑏𝑖
If one side is heavily doped compared to other
Say NA ND {p+n junction}

2𝜖𝑠
𝑊 ≈ 𝑥𝑛 ≈ 𝑉𝑏𝑖 W depends primarily on ND
𝑞𝑁𝐷
Example: Depletion Layer Width

 A p+n junction has NA  1020 cm–3 and ND  1017cm–3, at 300 K.

a) What isVbi?
kT  ND NA   1017 1020 
Vbi  ln  2   25.86 mV  ln  10 2 
 1.012 V
q  ni   (10 ) 

b) What is W?
2 SVbi  2 11.9  8.854 1014 1.012 
1/ 2

W  19   0.115  m
qN D  1.602 10 10 17

c) What is xn?
xn  W  0.115  m

d) What is xp?
N
xp  xn D  0.115 m 103  1.15 Å
NA
Applying bias to p-n junction
Biased p-n junction electrostatics
 𝑉𝑏𝑖 → 𝑉𝑏𝑖 − 𝑉𝐴
→ 𝑉𝑏𝑖 − 𝑉𝐹 Forward bias

→ 𝑉𝑏𝑖 + 𝑉𝑅 Reverse bias

2𝜖𝑠 1 1
𝑊= + (𝑉𝑏𝑖 − 𝑉𝐴 )
𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
 Majority
carriers

Majority
carriers
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Forward bias

 When a forward bias (VA > 0) is applied, the potential barrier to

diffusion across the junction is reduced.
 Minority carriers are “injected” into the quasi-neutral regions
 Δnp > 0, Δpn > 0.
 Minority carriers diffuse in the quasi-neutral regions,
recombining with majority carriers.
 Drift current is very similar to that of the equilibrium case. This
current is due to the minority carriers on each side of the
junction and the movement minority carriers is due to the built
in field accross the depletion region
Reverse bias

 Reduced diffusion due to enhanced potential barrier

 Drift current flow is similar to the equilibrium case
 Overall a very small reverse saturation current flows
Qualitative explanation of forward bias

 Junction potential is reduced

+ -
from Vbi to Vbi-VF.
 By forward biasing a large
p - + n number of electrons are
- + injected from n-side to p-side
accross the depletion region
pn
and
Carrier Density

np
 These electrons become
pno minority carriers on p-side
npo  The minority recombine with
majority holes so that the
number of injected minority
electrons decreases (decays)
exponentially with distance
p-n junction in forward bias into the p-side.
Qualitative explanation of forward bias …….

 How does current flow occur if all the injected

minorities recombine with majorities ?

 If there is no carrier; no current flow occurs.

 Consider the role of ohmic contacts at both ends
of p-n junction.
 The lost majority carriers are replaced by the
majority carriers coming in from ohmic contacts
to maintain the charge neutrality.
 The sum of the hole and electron currents flowing
through the ohmic contacts makes up the total
current flowing through the external circuit.
 Chapter 6 pn Junction Diodes: I-V Characteristics
Ideal diode: Assumptions

 Steady-state conditions.
 Abrupt depletion layer approximation
 Abrupt boundaries of space charge distribution
 Neutral outside depletion region
 One-dimensional diode.
 Low-level injection
 Total current is constant throughout the structure
 Generation/ Recombination neglected in depletion region  JN
and JP are constants independent of position inside the
depletion region.
Formulation for quantitative understanding

Minority Carrier
Injection

-xp xn
Quasi-neutral Quasi-neutral
p region n region

𝜕 2 ∆𝑛 𝑝 ∆𝑛 𝑝 𝜕 2 Δ𝑝 𝑛 Δ𝑝 𝑛
− =0 − =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝐿2𝑝 𝜕𝑥 2 𝐿2𝑝
Minority carrier injection leads to the boundary conditions
for solving the carrier diffusion equations
 Chapter 6
Strategy for obtaining diode equations

 Obtain the boundary conditions at the edges of the quasi-

neutral regions (minority carrier injection).
 Solve the carrier diffusion equations in the quasi-neutral
regions to obtain minority carrier distribution
 Calculate minority diffusion currents (Jn and Jp)in quasi-
neutral regions
 Obtain the I-V equation
Carrier concentrations at the boundaries of depletion region

 Consider the equilibrium carrier concentrations at VA = 0:

p-side n-side
pp0 ( xp )  N A nn0 ( xn )  N D
ni2 ni2
np0 ( xp )  pn0 ( xn ) 
NA ND

 If low-level injection conditions prevail in the quasi-neutral

regions when VA  0, then:

pp ( xp )  N A nn ( xn )  ND
Law of Junctions

 The voltage VA applied to a pn junction falls mostly across

the depletion region (assuming that low-level injection
conditions prevail in the quasi-neutral regions).
 Two quasi-Fermi levels are drawn in the depletion region:

W
p  ni e( Ei  FP ) kT
n  ni e( FN  Ei ) kT
Fn
EFn
EFp np  ni2e( Ei  FP ) kT e( FN  Ei ) kT
Fp
 ni2e( FN  FP ) kT

np  n e 2 qVA kT
i

for  xp  x  xn
Excess Carrier Concentrations at –xp, xn

p-side n-side

pp ( xp )  N A nn ( xn )  ND
2 qVA kT ni2eqVA kT

np ( xp ) 
ne
i pn ( xn ) 
NA ND

 np0 e qVA kT  pn0eqVA kT

ni2 qVA ni2 qVA

np ( xp )  (e kT
 1) pn ( xn )  (e kT
 1)
NA ND
 minority carrier diffusion equation on n-side

𝑑 2 Δ𝑝𝑛 Δ𝑝𝑛
2
− = 0, 𝑥 ≥ 𝑥𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝐿𝑝

 boundary conditions:

pn ( xn )  pn0 (eqVA kT

 1)
pn ()  0

𝑞𝑉𝐴
Δ𝑝𝑛 = 𝑝𝑛0 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1 𝑒 −(𝑥−𝑥 𝑛 )/𝐿𝑝
𝑑𝑝𝑛 𝑞𝐷𝑝 𝑝𝑛0 𝑞𝑉𝐴
Jp 𝑥𝑛 = −𝑞𝐷𝑝 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑛 𝐿𝑝
 Similarly, for p-side
𝑞𝑉𝐴
Δ𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑝0 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1 𝑒 (𝑥+𝑥 𝑝 )/𝐿𝑛 , 𝑥 ≤ −𝑥𝑝

𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑝0 𝑞𝑉𝐴

𝐽𝑛 (−𝑥𝑝 ) = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1
𝐿𝑛
𝑞𝑉𝐴
𝐽 = 𝐽𝑝 𝑥𝑛 + 𝐽𝑛 (−𝑥𝑝 ) = 𝐽𝑠 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1

𝑞𝐷𝑝 𝑝𝑛0 𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑝0

𝐽𝑠 = +
𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑛
 n p ( x) pn (x )
Space-charge Forward bias
region W
pn 0
n p0
x
 xp xn
Reverse bias

J tot  J diff diff

p ( xn )  J n (  x p )

majority J diff
p  J drift
p
majority J ndiff  J ndrift
J tot

minority J ndiff minority J pdiff

x
 xp xn
No SCR generation/recombination
 Chapter 6 pn Junction Diodes: I-V Characteristics
Deviations from the Ideal I-V Behavior

 Si pn-junction Diode, 300 K.

Forward-bias current Reverse-bias current

“Slope over” No saturation

“Breakdown”
Smaller slope

Smaller slope and No saturation: R-G in depletion region

Slope over: High injection
Capacitance

 Depletion Capacitance (Junction Capacitance)

 Important in Reverse bias / Low forward bias
 Forms a Varactor (Variable reactor)
 Used for Capacitors in many ICs and other circuits
 Diffusion Capacitance
 Important in Moderate to high forward bias
CJ: Junction Capacitance
per unit area (F/cm2)
2𝜖𝑠 1 1
𝑊= + 𝑉𝑏𝑖
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑥𝑛 𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝐶𝐽 = = 𝑄𝑁𝐷
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑁𝐴
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑊
𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁𝐷
2𝜖𝑠 𝑁𝐴
𝑥𝑛 = (𝑉𝑏𝑖 + 𝑉𝑅 )
𝑞 𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁𝐷

𝜖𝑠 𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷 1 𝜖𝑠
𝐶𝐽 = =
2 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁𝐷 (𝑉𝑏𝑖 + 𝑉𝑅 ) 𝑊

For p+n junction 1 2(𝑉𝑏𝑖 + 𝑉𝑅 )

2 =
NA ND
𝐶𝐽 𝜖𝑠 𝑞𝑁𝐷
Diffusion Capacitance

 Important in forward bias

 Arises due to rearrangement of charges in neutral region
 The total charge of injected minority carriers (holes) in neutral
n-region (per unit area)

∞
𝑄𝑝 = 𝑞 𝑝𝑛 − 𝑝𝑛0 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑛
∞ 𝑞𝑉𝐴
=𝑞 𝑝𝑛0 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1 𝑒 −(𝑥−𝑥 𝑛 )/𝐿𝑝 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑛
𝑞𝑉𝐴
= 𝑞𝐿𝑝 𝑝𝑛0 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1 Recall
𝑞𝐷𝑝 𝑝𝑛0 𝑞𝑉𝐴
𝐽𝑝 (𝑥𝑛 ) = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1
𝑄𝑝 = 𝜏𝑝 𝐽𝑝 (𝑥𝑛 ) 𝐿𝑝

𝐿𝑝 = 𝐷𝑝 𝜏𝑝
 𝑑𝑄𝑝
𝐶𝑑 = 𝐴
𝑑𝑉
𝐴𝑞2 𝐿𝑝 𝑝𝑛0 𝑞𝑉/𝑘𝑇
= 𝑒
𝑘𝑇

May add the contribution of electrons in p-region

For p+n junction, pn0 np0

electron contribution can be neglected
 𝑑𝐽
Conductance 𝐺=𝐴
𝑑𝑉
𝑞𝐴 𝑞𝑉/𝑘𝑇 𝑞𝐼
= 𝐽𝑠 𝑒 ≈
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
Equivalent circuit model for forward bias:
Cdepl Cdif
C
Rs
Cdif

1 Cdepl
Rd 
Gd
Va
Bias dependence
Transient behavior

Important for switching applications

p+ n
Diode turn-off:
t=0
• For t<0, the switch is in position
1, and a steady-state situation is 1 2
established: VF VR

• At t=0, the switch is moved to R R

position 2
 Va (t )

pn ( x, t ) t
Slope almost
constant

t=0
 VR

pn 0 t=ts
IF
ttrr
x
ts trr
t
 0.1I R
ts  switching time
trr  reverse recovery time
 IR
We have seen that
𝐼𝐹
𝑄𝑝 = 𝜏𝑝 𝐽𝑝 = 𝜏𝑝 Stored charge with FB
𝐴
(per unit area)

When switched to RB condition

VR
IR 
R
Time for removal of stored charge
𝑄𝑝 𝐴 𝐼𝐹
𝑡𝑠 = = 𝜏𝑝
𝐼𝑅 𝐼𝑅
Junction Breakdown

• Junction breakdown can be due to:

 tunneling breakdown
 avalanche breakdown

• One can determine which mechanism is responsible for the

breakdown based on the value of the breakdown voltage VBD :
 VBD < 4Eg/q  tunneling breakdown
 VBD > 6Eg/q  avalanche breakdown
 4Eg/q < VBD < 6Eg/q  both tunneling and
avalanche mechanisms are responsible
Tunneling breakdown:
• Tunneling breakdown occurs in heavily-doped pn-junctions in
which the depletion region width W is about 10 nm.
Zero-bias band diagram: Reverse-bias band diagram:

EF EF
EC p
EFn
EC

EV

EV
 Avalanche mechanism:

EF
p
EFn
EC

EV

Generation of the excess electron-hole

pairs is due to impact ionization. Expanded view of the
depletion region
 If the reverse bias voltage (–VA) is so large that the peak electric
field exceeds a critical value ECR, then the junction will “break down”
and large reverse current will flow.

2q  N A N D 
ECR    Vbi  VBR 
S  NA  ND  • At breakdown, VA=–VBR

 Thus, the reverse bias at which breakdown occurs is

 SECR 2  NA  ND 
VBR     Vbi
2q  N A N D 