Origin of Earth

Introduction
 Time began 13.7 billion years ago.

 Time and the universe began with the “Big Bang”, after
which the universe began to expand and cool.

 The first stars were formed after 200 million years, and
the galaxies began to form after about 1 billion years.
Nebular Concept
 The accepted theory for the origin of the solar system is that it formed
from a rotating cloud of gas and dust, called a nebula. In common called as
the “Nebular concept”

 The theory states that the gases had been formed in earlier stars and the
explosion of these stars (called supernovas) scattered the elements
through space where they slowly gathered and thickened due to gravity.

 Towards the centre the pull of gravity became stronger, and hence the
material became hotter and denser.

 Nuclear fusion began and the Sun was born, about 5 billion years ago. The
material in the surrounding disk compacted and cooled.
 Nebular Concept cont
 The lighter substances were swept outwards and a hot inner zone of denser
substances such as iron and nickel and a cool outer zone of low density
gases composed largely of hydrogen and helium was formed.

 The four inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars consist of elements
that form solids at high temperatures, such as iron, magnesium, silicon and
aluminium and are called as Terrestrial Planets.

 Some of the lighter materials were accumulated on the giant outer planets,
 Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto and these are predominantly made
up of hydrogen, helium, methane and ammonia. These outer planets are called
the jovian planets.
 How earth formed?
 4600 million years ago the earth was a molten ball of matter.

 This material began to differentiate, with heavier matter sinking

towards the centre and the lighter material moving towards the top.

 The gases which remained within the gravitational pull formed the
atmosphere.

 The water vapour (steam) which cooled occupied depressions on the

surface forming the oceans

 The rest of the matter distributed itself between the crust, mantle and
core.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE
EARTH
Introduction
 Seismograph records of distant earthquakes provide information of
some of the properties of earth’s interior at different depths.

 Two types of seismic waves-

 Dilational or Compressional or Primary waves(P)
 Shear or Transverse or Secondary waves(S)

 The Primary or P-waves travel faster, are first to be recorded and can
transmit through water, air, or rocks.

 On the other hand, shear or S-waves are the next to be recorded as

their velocity is less than the P-waves, and cannot be transmitted
through liquids.

 Three main layers are accordingly recognized: CRUST, MANTLE AND

CORE.
 The travel times of P-waves indicate that their velocities increase with
depth. This increase is also shown by the S-waves.

 A decrease in the velocity of P-waves has been recorded at a depth of

about 100 km, where the S-waves are found not to penetrate at all.

 This indicates the presence of a liquid-like layer at this depth.

 Further, the velocity of P-waves is greatly reduced when they pass from the
mantle into the core and the S-waves are not transmitted at all.

 This indicates that the discontinuity between mantle and core is also a
boundary between states of matter that behave towards seismic waves as
if they were solid and fluid respectively.
(www.uwsp.edu/.../tectonics/earth_structure.jpg)
THE CRUST

 The uppermost layer of the earth is called as the crust.

 the crust can be divided into two layers-

 an upper crust; often considered to be granitic or granodioritic in composition;

 a lower crust, probably of more basic composition.

 The boundary between the upper and lower crust, sometimes called the Conrad
Discontinuity is variable in nature and in depth.

 Wherever the upper and lower crustal layers have been determined, they are not
always sharply divided and their relative thickness varies.

 The continental crust has an average thickness of about 35 kms; it varies between
20 km and 50 km. The maximum of about 50 kms occurs beneath mountain
ranges.
 The Crust Cont
 The dominant rocks occurring in the crust fall into two contrasted groups:

 A group of light rocks, including Granites and other related types; and
sediments such as sandstones and shale’s; collectively known by the
mnemonic term Sial.

 A group of dark and heavy rocks consisting mainly of basalt and related
types known by the mnemonic term Sima.

 At the base of the crust, earthquake waves increase abruptly in velocity,

marking the boundary of the crust with the mantle, known as the Mohorovicic
discontinuity.
 The Mantle
 At the base of the crust, earthquake waves increase abruptly in velocity, marking
the boundary of the crust with the mantle, known as the Mohorovicic
discontinuity.

 The mantle extends down to the boundary of the core at about 2900 kms.

 On the basis of seismic velocities, the mantle is usually divided into three regions:
 The first layer downwards from Moho is one of gradual increase or perhaps, in
part, even of decrease in seismic velocity and rock density.
 Then, from about 200 kms there is a rapid increase in velocity and density
down to 700 kms;
 from here the velocity and density increase slowly but regularly down to the
core.
The Mantle Cont
 It has long been thought probable that meteorites, both stony and iron
varieties might be direct clues to the nature of the earth’s mantle and
core.

 Stony meteorites are like terrestrial peridotites and a few varieties

have a basaltic composition.

 For these and other reasons a similar range of composition for the
mantle has been assumed.

 The sudden change of seismic velocities at the Moho indicates either a

change of composition or a change of state.
THE LOW-VELOCITY ZONE
 The velocity decrease of the seismic waves begins on average at a depth
of about 100 kms from the surface and is only regained at an average
depth of about 150 kms or more.

 The existence of a low velocity channel or zone within the upper part of
the mantle is thought to depend on the temperature of the material in
relation to its melting point.

 The low-velocity zone in the upper mantle is thus a kind of lubricated

zone, making relative movement between the overlying layers and the
interior possible.

 As a result, the crust and upper part of the mantle above the low-
velocity zone is known as the Lithosphere, and the low-velocity zone as
the Asthenosphere.
THE CORE

 The earth’s core is the region extending downwards from the mantle-
core boundary at 2900 kms, which is sometimes called the Gutenberg
or Oldham discontinuity.

 The outer part of the core must be liquid because it does not transmit
S-waves.

 Normally it is assumed that the core consists of iron with some nickel.

 This is based largely on the analogy with meteorites.

 CONCLUSIONS
Earth’s interior divided into;

----------------------0-----------------------

Crust: upper crust- granitic to granodioritic (SiAl)

--------------------Conrad------------
lower crust- basic composition (SiMa)

-----------------Moho: 20 to 50 km---------------

Mantle: Low velocity zone/Aesthenosphere- lubricant

Meteoritic composition i.e Peridotites & Basalts

------------Gutenberg or Oldham: 2900 km----------

Core: Outer Core- Liquid
Inner Core- Solid- rich in Fe and Ni
REFERENCES

 Holmes - Principles of Physical Geology, Arthur Holmes, England:Van

Nostrand Reinhold Company Limited,1986.

 Plate Tectonics & Crustal Evolution, Kent Condie, New York:Pergamon

Press,1982.

 (www.uwsp.edu/.../tectonics/earth_structure.jpg)
Thank You