HARDNESS

Presented By:
Mamoon Rasheed (2k17-ESE-03)
Amna Tariq (2k17-ESE-04)
Afnan Batool (2k17-ESE-05)
Abdul Moeed (2k17-ESE-19)
 Overview

 Introduction of hardness
 Types of Hardness
 History
 Advantages
 Hardness Tests
 Macro Hardness Tests (Rockwell and Brinell Hardness Tests)
 Micro Hardness Tests (Vickers And Knoop Hardness Tests)
 Nano Hardness Test
 Summary
 INTRODUCTION

Hardness is defined as the ability of a material to resist plastic deformation,

usually by indentation.
The term may also refer to resistance to:
 Scratching
 Abrasion
 Cutting
 Penetration
 INTRODUCTION

Hardness is dependent on:

 Ductility
 Elastic stiffness
 Plasticity
 Strain
 Strength
 Toughness
 Viscoelasticity
 Viscosity
 Examples

Common examples of hard matter are:

 ceramics,
 concrete,
 certain metals (Iron, Copper, Aluminium etc), and
 super hard materials, which can be contrasted with soft matter.
 Types of Hardness

There are three main types of hardness measurements

 Scratch Hardness,
 Indentation Hardness, and
 Rebound Hardness.
Within each of these classes of measurement there are individual
measurement scales. For practical reasons conversion tables are used to
convert between one scale and another.
 Scratch Hardness

 Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to fracture or

permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The
principle is that an object made of a harder material will scratch an object
made of a softer material. When testing coatings, scratch hardness refers to
the force necessary to cut through the film to the substrate. The most
common test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. One tool to make
this measurement is the sclerometer. Another tool used to make these tests
is the pocket hardness tester. This tool consists of a scale arm with
graduated markings attached to a four-wheeled carriage. A scratch tool
with a sharp rim is mounted at a predetermined angle to the testing
surface. In order to use it a weight of known mass is added to the scale arm
at one of the graduated markings, the tool is then drawn across the test
surface. The use of the weight and markings allows a known pressure to be
applied without the need for complicated machinery.
 Indentation Hardness

 Indentation hardness measures the resistance of a sample to material

deformation due to a constant compression load from a sharp object. Tests
for indentation hardness are primarily used in engineering and metallurgy
fields. The tests work on the basic premise of measuring the critical
dimensions of an indentation left by a specifically dimensioned and loaded
indenter.
 Common indentation hardness scales are Rockwell, Vickers, Shore, and
Brinell amongst others.
 Rebound Hardness

 Rebound hardness, also known as dynamic hardness, measures the height

of the "bounce" of a diamond-tipped hammer dropped from a fixed height
onto a material. This type of hardness is related to elasticity. The device
used to take this measurement is known as a scleroscope.
 Two scales that measures rebound hardness are the Leeb rebound
hardness test and Bennett hardness scale.
 History
 Early hardness tests were based on natural minerals with a scale
constructed solely on the ability of one material to scratch another that
was softer.
 A qualitative and somewhat arbitrary hardness indexing scheme was
devised, termed the Moh’s scale, which ranged from 1 on the soft end for
talc to 10 for diamond.
 Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed over the years in
which a small indenter is forced into the surface of a material to be tested,
under controlled conditions of load and rate of application.
 The depth or size of the resulting indentation is measured, which in turn is
related to a hardness number, the softer the material, the larger and
deeper is the indentation, and the lower the hardness index number.
 Measured hardnesses are only relative (rather than absolute), and care
should be exercised when comparing values determined by different
techniques.
Moh’s Scale of Hardness
 Advantages

 Hardness tests are performed more frequently than any other mechanical
test:
 They are simple and inexpensive—ordinarily no special specimen need be
prepared, and the testing apparatus is relatively inexpensive.
 The test is nondestructive—the specimen is neither fractured nor excessively
deformed; a small indentation is the only deformation.
 Other mechanical properties often may be estimated from hardness data,
such as tensile strength.
 Hardness Tests

 Macro Hardness
Rockwell Hardness Test
Rockwell superficial Test
Brinell Hardness Test
 Micro Hardness
Vickers Micro indentation Hardness Tests
Knoop Micro indentation Hardness Tests
 Nano Hardness
Macro Hardness Tests

Rockwell Hardness Test

Rockwell superficial Test
Brinell Hardness Test
 Rockwell Hardness Tests

 The Rockwell tests constitute the most

common method used to measure hardness
because they are so simple to perform and
require no special skills.
 Several different scales may be utilized from
possible combinations of various indenters
and different loads, which permit the testing
of virtually all metal alloys (as well as some
polymers).
 Rockwell Hardness Tests

Procedure
 With this system, a hardness number is determined by the difference in
depth of penetration resulting from the application of an initial minor load
followed by a larger major load; utilization of a minor load enhances test
accuracy.
 On the basis of the magnitude of both major and minor loads, there are
two types of tests:
 Rockwell, and
 Superficial Rockwell.
 Rockwell Hardness Tests

Indenter
 Indenters include spherical and hardened steel balls having diameters of
1.588, 3.175, 6.350, and 12.70 mm, and a conical diamond (Brale) indenter,
which is used for the hardest materials.
 Rockwell Hardness Tests

Rockwell Hardness
 For Rockwell, the minor load is 10 kg, whereas major loads are 60, 100, and
150 kg.
 Each scale is represented by a letter of the alphabet;
 Following table represents several Rockwell Hardness Scales with the
corresponding indenter and load.
 Rockwell Hardness Tests

Rockwell Hardness Scales

 Rockwell Hardness Tests

Superficial Rockwell
 For superficial tests, 3 kg is the minor load; 15, 30, and 45 kg are the possible
major load values.
 These scales are identified by a 15, 30, or 45 kg (according to load),
followed by N,T,W, X, or Y, depending on indenter.
 Superficial tests are frequently performed on thin specimens.
 Following table presents several superficial scales.
 Rockwell Hardness Tests

Superficial Rockwell Hardness Scales

 Rockwell Hardness Tests

Decoding
 When specifying Rockwell and superficial hardness, both hardness number and
scale symbol must be indicated.
 Rockwell scales are also frequently designated by an R with the appropriate
scale letter as a subscript, for example, RC denotes the Rockwell C scale.
 The scale is designated by the symbol HR, followed by the appropriate scale
identification. For example
 80 HRB represents a Rockwell hardness of 80 on the B scale,
 60 HR30W indicates a superficial hardness of 60 on the 30W scale.
 For each scale, hardness may range up to 130; however, as hardness values rise
above 100 or drop below 20 on any scale, they become inaccurate; and
 Because the scales have some overlap, in such a situation it is best to utilize the
next harder or softer scale.
 Rockwell Hardness Tests

Inaccuracies
 Inaccuracies also result if the test specimen is too thin
 If an indentation is made too near a specimen edge, or if two indentations
are made too close to one another.
 Specimen thickness should be at least ten times the indentation depth,
whereas allowance should be made for at least three indentation
diameters between the center of one indentation and the specimen edge,
or to the center of a second indentation.
 Furthermore, testing of specimens stacked one on top of another is not
recommended.
 Also, accuracy is dependent on the indentation being made into a smooth
flat surface.
 Rockwell Hardness Tests

Modern Methods
 The modern apparatus for making Rockwell
hardness measurements is automated and
very simple to use;
 Hardness is read directly, and each
measurement requires only a few seconds.
 The modern testing apparatus also permits a
variation in the time of load application.
 This variable must also be considered in
interpreting hardness data.
 Rockwell Hardness Tests

Standards
 ASTM Standard E 18,
 “Standard Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell Superficial
Hardness of Metallic Materials.”
 Brinell Hardness Tests

 In Brinell tests, as in Rockwell measurements, a hard, spherical indenter is

forced into the surface of the metal to be tested.
 The diameter of the hardened steel (or tungsten carbide) indenter is 10.00
mm (0.394 in.)
 Standard loads range between 500 and 3000 kg in 500-kg increments;
during a test, the load is maintained constant for a specified time (between
10 and 30 s).
 Harder materials require greater applied loads.
 The Brinell hardness number, HB, is a function of both the magnitude of the
load and the diameter of the resulting indentation.
 This diameter is measured with a special low-power microscope, utilizing a
scale that is etched on the eyepiece.
 Brinell Hardness Tests

 The measured diameter is then converted to the appropriate HB

number using a chart; only one scale is employed with this technique.
 The Brinell hardness number is a function of the test force divided by
the curved surface area of the indent.
 The indentation is considered to be spherical with a radius equal to half
the diameter of the ball. The average of the two diagonals is used in
the following formula to calculate the Brinell Hardness.
 Brinell Hardness Tests

Precautions
 Maximum specimen thickness as well as indentation position (relative to
specimen edges) and minimum indentation spacing requirements are the
same as for Rockwell tests.
 In addition, a well-defined indentation is required; this necessitates a
smooth flat surface in which the indentation is made.
 Brinell Hardness Tests

Decoding
 75 HB 10/500/30: This means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained
using a 10mm diameter hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied
for a period of 30 seconds
 The Brinell number, which normally ranges from HB 50 to HB 750 for metals,
will increase as the sample gets harder
 356HBW: In this, 356 is the calculated hardness and the W indicates that a
carbide ball was used.
 Brinell Hardness Tests

Standards
 ASTM Standard E 10,
 “Standard Test Method for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials.”
 Brinell Hardness Tests

Hardness Data

Material Hardness
Aluminium 15 HB
Copper 35 HB
Mild Steel 120
Stainless steel (304) 250 HB
Glass 550 HB
Hardened tool steel 650 - 700 HB
 Brinell Hardness Tests

Strengths
 One scale covers the entire hardness range, although comparable results
can only be obtained if the ball size and test force relationship is the same.
 A wide range of test forces and ball sizes to suit every application.
 Nondestructive, sample can normally be reused.
 Brinell Hardness Tests

Weaknesses
 The main drawback of the Brinell test is the need to optically measure the
indent size. This requires that the test point be finished well enough to make
an accurate measurement.
 Slow. Testing can take 30 seconds not counting the sample preparation
time.
Micro indentation
Hardness Tests

Vickers Micro indentation Hardness Tests

Knoop Micro indentation Hardness Tests
 Method
 For each test a very small diamond indenter having pyramidal geometry is
forced into the surface of the specimen.
 Applied loads are much smaller than for Rockwell and Brinell, ranging between
1 and 1000 g.
 The resulting impression is observed under a microscope and measured; this
measurement is then converted into a hardness number
 Careful specimen surface preparation (grinding and polishing) may be
necessary to ensure a well-defined indentation that may be accurately
measured.
 The Knoop and Vickers hardness numbers are designated by HK and HV,
respectively, and hardness scales for both techniques are approximately
equivalent.
 Knoop and Vickers are referred to as micro indentation-testing methods on the
basis of indenter size.
 Both are well suited for measuring the hardness of small, selected specimen
regions.
 Applications

 Micro hardness testing is used extensively in many application including

determination of the relative mechanical properties of different micro
structure phases
 Testing of thin sections, metallurgical process control & forensic
investigations
 In addition to above application, micro harness is as a research tool for
development of new materials and processes, even extending into the
biomedical field
 Knoop and Vickers indenters commonly used for micro hardness testing.
 Both indenters are four sided diamond pyramids.
 Knoop Indenter

 The knoop indenter is elongated along one axis and provides a long,
shallow indentation.
 The elongated axis and shallow indentation size allow for determination of
the dependence of hardness on orientation in single crystals and within the
grain of polycrystalline materials.
 The shallow penetration also provides some advantage for hardness
measurement in brittle materials.
 Vickers Indenter

 The Vickers indenter is fully symmetrical four sided pyramidal indenter.

 For given load, this indenter provides much deeper indentation than the
knoop indenter.
 As such, Vickers indenters are more prone to cracking, however, tendency
of crack can be useful in estimating fracture toughness of materials.
Indenters Geometries
Nano Hardness Test
 Nano Hardness

 Nano hardness testing is an emerging technique for mechanical property

evaluation.
 With development of thin film materials and an increased interest in the
surface properties of materials.
 Nano hardness testing has increased partially because micro hardness
testing has frequently proven to be inadequate for small scales.
 Nano hardness is also widely used in material characterization to determine
the mechanical properties of small precipitates.
 Three sided Berkovich pyramid is the standard indenter for most nano
hardness application.
Nano Hardness
Summary