Construction Management Chair

COTM 5241: Research Methods

And
Technical Report Writing
Chapter 4
Research Methodology
4.1 Sample Design
 Contents
Sample Design
1. Research Methodology
2. Sampling Basics
3. Bias and Error in Sampling
4. Selecting the Sample
5. Types of samples
6. Sample size

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1. Research Methodology
 The researcher must decide exactly how to achieve his
stated objectives: i.e., what new data will be needed in
order to shed light on the problem selected and to collect
and process this data.
 Indicate the methodological steps you will take to
answer every question, to test every hypothesis
illustrated in the Questions/Hypotheses section or address
the objectives you set.
 Methodology should be chosen carefully; consider all of
your options before choosing how you will proceed with
your experiment or analysis.
 Sometimes you will even be able to use combined
methodology or develop your own instruments. If you
have financial needs for your experiment or analysis, be
sure to budget for your methodology.

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1. Research Methodology
 The methodology section describes how your research
will be performed and the process you go through. This
includes the type of research methods as well as a
step‐by‐step description of the research.
 Discuss the different materials and apparatuses you will
use in the study, including anything from surveys in the
social sciences, to raw materials, or chemicals and
equipment in the hard sciences.
 You will also need to discuss the participants if relevant
to your study: how you choose them, on what basis, who
they are, background information, etc.
 Discussing how you plan to analyze your data is also
important. You may also mention when and where your
research will be conducted.

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1. Research Methodology
 What belongs in the "methodology" section of a research
proposal?
 Information to allow the reader to assess the
credibility of your approach;
 Information needed by another researcher to replicate
your experiment;
 Description of your materials, procedure, theory;
 Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and
calibration plots;
 Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity; and
 Description of your analytical methods, including
reference to any specialized statistical software.

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1. Research Methodology
 The proposal should describe in detail the general
research plan. (may not necessarily be true for all types
of research):
 Description of study area;
 Description of study design;
 Description of study participants;
 Eligibility criteria ( if any);
 Determination of sample size (if any);
 Description of selection process (sampling method);
 Methods of data collection;
 Description of the expected outcome and explanatory
variables (if any);
 How data quality is ensured;
 Operational definition; and
 Presentation of the data analysis methods. 6
2. Sampling Basics
2.1 What is a Sample?
 A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose
properties are studied to gain information about the
whole (Webster, 1985).
 In statistics, a sample is a subset of a population
that is used to represent the entire group as a
whole.
 When dealing with people, it can be defined as a set of
respondents (people) selected from a larger population
for the purpose of a survey.
 A population is a group of individual persons, objects,
or items from which samples are taken for measurement;
for example, a population of contractors or consultants ,
books or students.

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2. Sampling Basics
2.2 Sampling
 Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a
suitable sample, or a representative part of a population
for the purpose of determining parameters or
characteristics of the whole population.
 Sampling is the process of selecting a number of study
units from a defined study population.
 Often research focuses on a large population that, for
practical reasons, it is only possible to include some of its
members in the investigation; hence, the researcher have
to draw a sample from the total population.

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2. Sampling Basics
2.2 Sampling
 In such cases you must consider the following questions:
 What is the study population you are interested in from
which we want to draw a sample?
 How many subjects do you need in your sample?
 How will these subjects be selected?
 The study population has to be clearly defined.
Otherwise it is difficult to do the sampling.
 The way you define your study population and your
study unit depends on the problem you want to
investigate and on the objectives of the study.

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2. Sampling Basics
2.3 Purpose of Sampling
 The key reason for being concerned with sampling is that
of validity:- the extent to which the interpretations of the
results of the study follow from the study itself and the
extent to which results may be generalized to other
situations with other people or situation.
 Sampling is critical to external validity:- the extent to
which findings of a study can be generalized to people or
situations other than those observed in the study.
 To generalize validly of the findings from a sample to
some defined population requires that the sample has
been drawn from that population according to one of
several probability sampling plans.

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2. Sampling Basics
2.3 Purpose of Sampling
 Another reason for being concerned with sampling is that
of internal validity:- the extent to which the outcomes of
a study result from the variables that were manipulated,
measured, or selected rather than from other variables not
systematically treated.
 Without probability sampling, error estimates cannot be
constructed. Perhaps the key word in sampling is
representative.
 If researchers want to draw conclusions which are valid
for the whole study population, which requires a
quantitative study design, they should take care to draw a
sample in such a way that it is representative of that
population.
 A representative sample has all the important
characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.
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2. Sampling Basics
2.3 Purpose of Sampling
 To draw conclusions about populations from samples,
we must use inferential statistics which enables us to
determine a population`s characteristics by directly
observing only a portion (or sample) of the population.
 We obtain a sample rather than a complete enumeration
(a census) of the population for many reasons. Some of
these reasons are;
 Economy;
 Timeliness;
 The large size of many populations;
 Inaccessibility of some of the population;
 Destructiveness of the observation; and
 Accuracy.

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3. Bias and Error in Sampling

 A sample is expected to mirror the population from

which it comes, however, there is no guarantee that any
sample will be precisely representative of the population
from which it comes.
 Chance may dictate that a disproportionate number of
untypical observations will be made like for the case of
testing fuses, the sample of fuses may consist of more or
less faulty fuses than the real population proportion of
faulty cases.
 In practice, it is rarely known when a sample is
unrepresentative and should be discarded.

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3. Bias and Error in Sampling
3.1 Sampling Error
 What can make a sample unrepresentative of its
population? One of the most frequent causes is sampling
error.
 Sampling error comprises the differences between the
sample and the population that are due solely to the
particular units that happen to have been selected.
 For example, suppose that a sample of 100 people are
measured and are all found to be taller than three
meters. It is very clear even without any statistical prove
that this would be a highly unrepresentative sample
leading to invalid conclusions.
 This is a very unlikely occurrence because naturally such
rare cases are widely distributed among the population.
But it can occur. Luckily, this is a very obvious error and
can be detected very easily.
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3. Bias and Error in Sampling
3.2 Causes of Sampling Error
 There are two basic causes of sampling error i.e. chance
and bias.
3.2.1 Chance
 The error that occurs just because of bad luck. This may
result in untypical choices.
 Unusual units in a population do exist and there is always
a possibility that an abnormally large number of them
will be chosen, For example, in a recent study in which
someone was looking at the number of trees, he selected a
sample of households randomly but strange enough, the
two households in the whole population, which had the
highest number of trees were both selected making the
sample average higher than it should be.
 The main protection against this kind of error is to use a
large enough sample.
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3. Bias and Error in Sampling
3.2 Causes of Sampling Error
3.2.2 Bias
 Sampling bias is a tendency to favor the selection of
units that have particular characteristics and it is
usually the result of a poor sampling plan.
 The most notable is the bias of non response when for
some reason some units have no chance of appearing in
the sample.
 For example if you would like to know the average
income of some community and you decide to use the
telephone numbers to select a sample of the total
population in a locality where only the rich and middle
class households have telephone lines. You will end up
with high average income which will lead to the wrong
policy decisions.
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3. Bias and Error in Sampling
3.3 Non-sampling (Measurement) Error
 The other main cause of unrepresentative samples is non
sampling error.
 This type of error can occur whether a census or a sample
is being used.
 A non sampling error is an error that results solely from
the manner in which the observations are made.
 The simplest example of non sampling error is inaccurate
measurements due to malfunctioning instruments or
poor procedures.

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4. Selecting the Sample
 The preceding section has covered the most common
problems associated with statistical studies.
 The desirability of a sampling procedure depends on both
its vulnerability to error and its cost. However, economy
and reliability are competing ends, because, to reduce error
often requires an increased expenditure of resources.
 Of the two types of statistical errors, only sampling error
can be controlled by exercising care in determining the
method for choosing the sample.
 The previous section has shown that sampling error may be
due to either bias or chance. The chance component
(sometimes called random error) exists no matter how
carefully the selection procedures are implemented, and the
only way to minimize chance sampling errors is to select a
sufficiently large sample.
 Sampling bias on the other hand may be minimized by the
wise choice of a sampling procedure.
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5. Types of Samples
 There are three primary kinds of samples:
 Convenience sample,
 Judgment sample, and
 Random sample.
 They differ in the manner in which the elementary units
are chosen.
5.1 Convenient sample
 A convenience sample results when the more convenient
elementary units are chosen from a population for
observation.
5.2 Judgment sample
 A judgment sample is obtained according to the
discretion of someone who is familiar with the relevant
characteristics of the population.
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5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
 This may be the most important type of sample. A
random sample allows a known probability that each
elementary unit will be chosen. For this reason, it is
sometimes referred to as a probability sample. This is the
type of sampling that is used in lotteries and raffles.
 For example, if you want to select 10 players randomly
from a population of 100, you can write their names, fold
them up, mix them thoroughly then pick ten. In this case,
every name had any equal chance of being picked.
 Random samples can be further classified as follows:
 Simple random sample;
 Systematic random sample;
 Stratified random sample;
 Cluster sample; and
 Multistage sample. 21
5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.1 Simple Random Samples
 A simple random sample is obtained by choosing
elementary units in such a way that each unit in the
population has an equal chance of being selected. A
simple random sample is free from sampling bias.
 This can be achieved by applying a table of random
numbers or a computer generated random numbers to a
numbered sampling frame.
 Another approach involves drawing numbers from a
container. The product of this technique is a sample
determined entirely by chance.
 It should be noted, however, that chance is “lumpy”,
meaning that random selection does not always produce a
sample that is representative of the population.
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5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.2 Systematic Random Samples
 A systematic random sample is obtained by selecting one
unit on a random basis and choosing additional
elementary units at evenly spaced intervals until the
desired number of units is obtained.
 The systematic random sampling technique begins with
selecting one element at random in the sampling frame as
the starting point; however, from this point onward, the
rest of the sample is selected systematically by applying a
predetermined interval.
 For example, in this sampling technique, after the initial
element is selected at random, every “kth” element will be
selected (kth refers to the size of the interval i.e. the ratio
of the population to sample size) and becomes eligible for
inclusion in the study.
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5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.2 Systematic Random Samples
 Instead of using a least of random numbers, data
collection can be simplified by selecting say every 10th
or 100th unit after the first unit has been chosen
randomly. such a procedure is called systematic random
sampling.
 For example, there are 100 students in your class. You
want a sample of 20 from these 100 and you have their
names listed on a piece of paper may be in an
alphabetical order. If you choose to use systematic
random sampling, divide 100 by 20, you will get an
interval of 5.
 If there is a cyclic repetition in the sampling frame,
systematic sampling is not recommended.
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5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.3 Stratified Random Samples
 Stratified random sampling begins with the identification
of some variable, which may be related indirectly to the
research question and could act as a confounder (such as
geography, age, income, education, or gender).
 This variable is then used to divide the sampling frame
into mutually exclusive strata or subgroups. Once the
sampling frame is arranged by strata, the sample is
selected from each stratum using simple random
sampling or systematic sampling techniques.
 It is important that the sample selected within each
stratum reflects proportionately the population
proportions; thus, you can employ proportionate
stratified sampling.
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5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.3 Stratified Random Samples
 A stratified sample is obtained by independently selecting
a separate simple random sample from each population
stratum. A population can be divided into different groups
may be based on some characteristic or variable like
income or education. Like any body with ten years of
education will be in group A, between 10 and 20 group B
and between 20 and 30 group C.
 These groups are referred to as strata. You can then
randomly select from each stratum a given number of
units which may be based on proportion like if group A
has 100 persons while group B has 50, and C has 30 you
may decide you will take 10% of each. So you end up
with 10 from group A, 5 from group B and 3 from group
C.
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5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.4 Cluster Samples
 It may be difficult or impossible to take a simple random
sample of the units of the study population at random,
because a complete sampling frame does not exist.
 Logistical difficulties may also discourage random
sampling techniques (e.g., interviewing people who are
scattered over a large area may be too time-consuming).
 However, when a list of groupings of study units is
available (e.g., villages or schools) or can be easily
compiled, a number of these groupings can be randomly
selected. Then all study units in the selected clusters will
be included in the study.

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5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.4 Cluster Samples
 A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters from
the population on the basis of simple random sampling.
The sample comprises a census of each random cluster
selected. For example, a cluster may be some thing like a
village or a school, a state.
 For example you want 20 schools to select for a certain
study. You can use simple or systematic random sampling
to select the schools, then every school selected becomes
a cluster.
 If your interest is to interview teachers on their opinion
of some new program which has been introduced, then
all the teachers in a cluster must be interviewed.

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5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.5 Multistage Samples
 Multistage cluster sampling is used when an appropriate
sampling frame does not exist or cannot be obtained.
 Multistage cluster sampling uses a collection of
preexisting units or clusters to “stand in” for a sampling
frame.
 The first stage in the process is selecting a sample of
clusters at random from the list of all known clusters. The
second stage consists of selecting a random sample from
each cluster.
 Because of this multistage process, the likelihood of
sampling bias increases. This creates a lack of sampling
precision known as a design effect. It is recommended to
consider the design effect during sample size
determination.
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6. Sample Size
 Having decided how to select the sample, you have to
determine the sample size. The research proposal should
provide information and justification about sample size.
 It is not necessarily true that the bigger the sample, the
better the study. Beyond a certain point, an increase in
sample size will not improve the study. In fact, it may do
the opposite; if the quality of the measurement or data
collection is adversely affected by the large size of the
study.
 After a certain sample size, in general, it is much better to
increase the accuracy and richness of data collection
(for example by improving the training of interviewers,
by pre-testing of the data collection tools or by calibrating
measurement devices) than to increase sample size.
 Also, it is better to make extra effort to get a
representative sample rather than to get a very large
sample. 30
6. Sample Size

 Before deciding how large a sample should be, you have

to define your study population. For example, all grade 1
contractor in Ethiopia. Then determine your sampling
frame which could be a list of all grade 1 contractors as
recorded in the County. You can then struggle with the
sample size.
 Sample size depends on:
 Nature of the analysis to be performed;
 Desired precision of the estimates one wishes to
achieve;
 Kind and number of comparisons that will be made;
 Number of variables that have to be examined
simultaneously; and
 How heterogeneous a universe is sampled.
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6. Sample Size
 More technical considerations suggest that the required
sample size is a function of:
 Precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve;
 Variability or variance, one expects to find in the
population; and
 Statistical level of confidence one wishes to use.
 The level of precision needed for the estimates will
impact the sample size.
 Generally, the actual sample size of a study is a
compromise between the level of precision to be
achieved, the research budget and any other operational
constraints, such as time.

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6. Sample Size
 In order to achieve a certain level of precision, the sample
size will depend, among other things, on the following
factors:
 The variability of the characteristics being observed;
 The population size; and
 The sampling and estimation methods.
A. Variability of the characteristics being observed
 If every person in a population had the same salary, then
a sample of one person would be all you would need to
estimate the average salary of the population. If the
salaries are very different, then you would need a bigger
sample in order to produce a reliable estimate.

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6. Sample Size
B. Population size
 To a certain extent, the bigger the population, the bigger
the sample needed. But once you reach a certain level,
an increase in population no longer affects the sample
size.
 For instance, the necessary sample size to achieve a
certain level of precision will be about the same for a
population of one million as for a population twice that
size.
C. Sampling and estimation methods
 Not all sampling and estimation methods have the same
level of efficiency. You will need a bigger sample if your
method is not the most efficient.
 But because of operational constraints and the
unavailability of an adequate frame, you cannot always
use the most efficient technique.
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THANK YOU!

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