Electromagnetic Waves,

Planck’s Quantum Theory,

Photoelectric Effect, and
Dual Nature of Light

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 Based from my Alpha Scattering
Experiment, atom is mostly empty
space having a very tiny but dense
nucleus that holds the protons. The
electrons whirled around the
nucleus in circular orbits at high
velocities.

But classical mechanics and

electromagnetic theory explained that
any charged particle moving on a
curved path would emit
electromagnetic radiation.

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 ... So what, huh?

This implies that electrons would lose

energy and spiral into the nucleus. Like
what I did for you below…

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 …?*/’@$#%*)(_+!?...
… then what?

Easy dude… Atoms do not work like

that… try to consider my model.
My model of the Hydrogen atom.
I’ll explain how electrons could stay in
stable orbits around the nucleus.

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 Ok, let me see what
you got.

1. Electrons go around the nucleus in circular

orbits. However, not all circular orbits are
allowed. The electron is allowed to occupy
only specific orbits with specific energies.
Therefore, the energies of the electron are
quantized.
2. If the electron stays in the allowed orbit, its
energy is stable. It will not emit radiation
and it will not spiral into the nucleus.
3. If an electron jumps from one orbit to
another, it will absorb or emit energy in
quanta equal to E = hv.
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The energy of the electron in the H atom is
given by:
EH = -RH (1/n2)

What’s the negative

sign for?

6
The negative sign is an arbitrary convention.
Meaning, a free electron is arbitrarily considered to
have an energy of zero. A negative energy means
that the energy of the electron is lower than the
energy of a free electron.

Oh I see.. What about

R? is this Rydberg
constant?

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Exactly! Our R here is for Hydrogen that’s
why it’s RH and is equal to 2.18 x 10-18J.
The number n is an integer equal to n =
1, 2, 3,…

Is n here represents the

different orbits of the
electrons around the
nucleus?

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 Correct! For the first orbit, n is equal to 1.
For second orbit n is 2 and so on…
Study the diagram below for clarification.

Blah…
Blah…
Blah…

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 Are you done, huh?

Not yet… I have a question for you.

Yeah… yeah… what?

What is the energy of the electron when it

is in the first orbit, n=1?

Easy! Based from your explanation my good

friend from Vigan City can answer your
question. Take it away Edward… show him. 10
Solve also the energy of the electron when it is in the second orbit,
third orbit and plot the energies of the electron in n=1, n=2, n=3.

Satisfied, huh?

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 TAKE NOTE! As the value gets more negative, the
energy gets lower. As the value of the energy gets
less negative, the energy gets higher.

Yeah… sure…
Comparing the energies for the
first 3 energy levels, we see that
E3 has the highest energy. It is
less negative. Therefore, as n
increases, energy increases.
E1 = 2.18 x 10-18 J
E2 = 0.545 x 10-18 J
E3 = 0.242 x 10-18 J
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E1 is the lowest energy and, therefore, the most stable state. It is
called the ground state or the ground level. E2, E3, E4, etc. have
higher energies and are less stable than E1. They are called excited
states or excited levels. Note also that as the electron gets closer
to the nucleus, it becomes more stable.

What will happen then

when energy is absorbed
by the atom?

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When energy is absorbed by
the atom, the electron gets
excited and jumps from a
lower orbit to a higher orbit.

What if electrons go
from a higher orbit to
a lower orbit?

Electrons will emit

radiation. And I call it
Emission.
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If an electron jumps from one orbit to
another, it will absorb or emit energy in
quanta equal to: ΔE = hv

Oh… so since v = c/λ

therefore, ΔE = hc/λ

Exactly!... Let’s burn some brain cells then…

The electron in the hydrogen atom undergoes a transition from n=3 to n=2.
a. Is energy absorbed or emitted?
b. What is the energy involved in the transition?
c. What is the wavelength (in nm) corresponding to this transition?
d. What region of the electromagnetic spectrum will this be?
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 Very easy…
a. Emitted
b. 3.03 x 10-19 J
c. 656 nm
d. This will be in the visible
region.

Hey showwww me
your solution!!!
Do it then Ed,
my friend. Tnx

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17
 Your works are truly
fascinating… but there
are things that your
studies can’t explain.

Oh common…
How’s that
dude?

Your model cannot

explain the spectrum of
atoms with more than
one electron.

Whatttttt…
It also violates Shut uppppp!!!
Classical mechanics
and electromagnetic
theory. 18
 Sorry dude…
But it cannot
also explain the
Zeeman Effect.

?????
… neither the relative
intensities of spectral
lines (why are some
lines more intense
than others)
Ok… Ok! You
win dudes…

It also violates
something
inside my mind.
But don’t deny the fact
that some of my model’s
features are still useful…
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 I agree to that…

Oh c’mon… One of this is

the explanation of the
emission spectrum.
I don’t think so…

Nahhhh… this is See...? YES!

incredible… Tnx Louis… love you!
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 Based from the Bohr Model, why are
only certain orbits allowed in his model?

That’s me… hehe

… if the electron going around the

nucleus in a circular orbit behaves
as a wave, then it should behave
as a standing wave…
???...

What do you
mean by
standing wave?
Yeah… what’s the difference
between travelling wave and
standing wave?
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 In a standing wave,
there are fixed points, or nodes, where the amplitude is
zero. The length of the wave must fit the circumference of
orbit. Otherwise the wave would cancel itself.

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 It will be: 2πr = nλ

where n = 1, 2, 3….
Because n is an integer,
the radius, r, can only have certain values
corresponding to n.
Therefore, only certain orbits with
allowed r values are permissible.

How will you

express that
mathematically?

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 E = hv

E = mc2

These dudes are really

amazing…
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 E = hv & E = mc2
will become, mc2 = hv
if, p = mc
p = hvc/c2 = hv/c
substituting the relationship, c = λv
therefore, p = hv/c = hv/λv = h/λ
p = h/λ
rewriting the formula, λ = h/p
finally, λ = h/mu

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 Gentlemen, may I present to you
My Equation!!!
The De BROGLIE’S EQUATION

What’s this all about?

The dual nature of matter…

…particle in motion can be
treated as a wave and a wave can
exhibit properties of a particle.

λ = h/mu Where’s the

equation?
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 So you mean… all moving
objects have wavelength?

Yup! And as the mass and/or

velocity of the particle
increases, λ becomes smaller.

A property of a wave…
So they can act as a wave…

So the wavelength of a
6.00 x 10-2 kg tennis ball
travelling at 68 m/s is
1.6 x 10-34 meters.

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 That’s great!

Yeah… but you know what guys…

though I’m good with it… I don’t have
any physical evidence to prove my claim
– to my “matter waves”

That’s what I’m about to ask… If

matter waves exist for small particles,
then beams of particles, such as
I guess that’s my electrons, should exhibit the
limitation… properties of waves, like diffraction.

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 Don’t worry Louise… my son-George P.
Thomson and other two scientists in the
future will prove that electrons act as a wave
just as you proposed. I tell you, you will also
be remembered because of your remarkable
contribution in the field of Science. Keep it up!

The father and son demonstrated the wave-

particle duality of electrons. The father, Joseph
John Thomson, showed that the electron is a
particle and George Thomson, the son, showed
that the electron is a wave. Outstanding
contributions… worthy of the Nobel Prize.
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 With the discovery that
particles like electrons are wavelike
how can the “position” of a
wave be specified?

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 I think there’s
something unusual
with your proposition…

What is it?

How can the precise location

of a wave be defined when a
wave extends in space?

Uhmmm… what do you

suggest then?
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I think, the position of a particle and its momentum cannot
be simultaneously measured with arbitrarily high precision.
And this will be known as the “Uncertainty Principle”.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle.

Meaning, it is not possible to

measure the exact position and the
exact momentum of a particle at the
same time, huh?

Precisely! Mathematically, this

will be expressed as
ΔxΔp > h/4π
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ΔxΔp > h/4π
where Δx is the uncertainty in position, Δp is the
uncertainty in momentum, and h is Planck’s constant.

I don’t get it… how could this be…

Kindly explain further bro…

Ok…
What is the meaning of the ≥
(greater than or equal to) sign with
respect to the uncertainties?
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 When conducting experiments, especially if
conditions are crude, the uncertainties in position
and momentum can be large. The product of ΔxΔp
can be greater than h/4π. However, even when
you want to make very precise measurements,
h/4π. The product ΔxΔp can never be smaller than
h/4π. Hence, there will always be uncertainties
even under good conditions.

So if I’m not mistaken… the

statement of Neils Bohr in his
model, that the electron goes
around the nucleus in well-defined
orbits and that the radius of which
can be determined actually violates
yours…? 34
 Yup! Electrons do not go around the
nucleus in well-defined orbits.
Otherwise, we will be able to
determine the exact position and
momentum of the electron in the atom
at the same time. A better model is
needed to fully describe the atom.

Better Model? I guess so…

Let’s take this example. An electron is

travelling at a speed of 2.05 x 106 m/s. Assuming
that the precision (uncertainty) of this value is
1.5%, with what precision can the position of the
electron be measured? 35
 In order to solve for the
position, solve first Δu.
Uncertainty in velocity (Δu)
= (0.015)(2.05 x 106 m/s)
= 3.1 x 104 m/s

What about uncertainty

momentum (Δp)?

Δp = m(Δu)
= (9.109 x 10-31 kg) (3.1 x 104 m/s)
= 2.8 x 10-26 kg.m/s

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 This value shows that the electron’s
position is about 10 atomic diameters. Given the
uncertainty of the speed, there is no way
to pin down the electron’s position
with any greater accuracy.

So the uncertainty
principle may not
significant when applied
to large objects such as
a transportation vehicle,
isn’t it?

Maybe… but I guess it will

depend on the situation…
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 Hi I‘m Erwin Schrodinger, an Austrian physicist,
with the help of ADVANCE CALCULUS and
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS I was able to describe
the behavior and energies of submicroscopic
particles. My equation incorporates particle
behavior and wave behavior, treating the
electron as a standing wave. The solution to my
equation is a wave function called ψ (psi).

What is a wave
The wave functions are function?
also called atomic orbitals
as distinguished from the
Bohr orbits.
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 The wave function itself has no physical
meaning. However, the probability of finding the
electron in a particular volume element in space
is proportional to ψ2. In wave theory, the
intensity of light is proportional to the square of
the amplitude of the wave or ψ2. Similarly, the
most likely place to find the particle is where the
value of ψ2 is greatest.

OMG! You’re hurting

my head dude…

My equation for the

Hydrogen atom
looks like this: 39
 FYI my equation starts a new field in physics and
chemistry referred to as quantum mechanics or
wave mechanics. My equation can be solved
exactly for the hydrogen atom but not for atoms
with more than one electron. For many-electron
atoms, approximation methods are used to solve
my equation.

How is your equation

related to Quantum
Numbers?
Then you have to listen to my
friend Edward about that…
Ask him bro.
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