Week # 03

Data Communication & Network

Powerpoint Templates
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
These lecture slides contain material from slides prepared
by Behrouz Forouzan for his book Data Communication
and Networking (4th edition).
 Week 2: Course Plan

 Network Models (System Architecture)

 Concept of protocol layering
 Two scenarios
 Principles of protocol layering
 OSI model
 TCP/IP protocol suit
 Task in each layer
 Addressing mechanism in each layer
 Protocols

 Protocol
◦ defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and all
intermediate devices need to follow to be able to
communicate effectively.
 We need only one simple protocol when
communication is simple
 Protocol layering: for complex communication,
we may need to divide the task between different
layers; and we need a protocol at each layer
 Protocol layering scenarios
 Scenario of simple communication (only one layer)
◦ Suppose A and B are office neighbors with common ideas
◦ Communication between them takes place in one layer (face to face)
in the same language
 Both must follow a set of rules for this simple
communication to occur
◦ Greet each other when they meet
◦ know vocabulary at their friendship level
◦ Only one should speak at a time
◦ Conversation in the form of dialogue instead of monolog (between
teacher-student)
◦ Exchange of some nice words when they leave
 Protocol layering scenarios
 A bit complex scenario (many layers)
◦ Now suppose A moves to other branch of company but still
wants to communicate ideas with B
◦ They opt for regular mail service through post office for their
conversation without revealing their ideas in case their letters
are intercepted
◦ They agree in encryption/decryption technique
 A encrypts the letter to make it unreadable by an intruder
(interceptor)
 B decrypts to get the original letter
◦ Communication between A and B takes place in three layers
 Tasks involved in sending a letter

Plain/text Plain/text

Encrypt/decrypt Encrypt/decrypt
 Principles of Protocol Layering
 Protocol layering allows us to divide a complex task into
several smaller and simpler tasks
 A layer (module) is a black box with inputs and outputs
without concerns about the conversion of inputs to outputs
 Protocol layering allows to separate the services from
implementation
 A layer needs to be able to receive a set of services from
the lower layer and to give the services to the upper layer
◦ We do not care about how the layer is implemented
 There are also intermediate systems other than end-
systems used by communication with respect to protocol
layering in the Internet
 Principles of Protocol layering
First principle
 For bidirectional communication: Each layer should be
able to perform two opposite tasks
◦ 3rd layer task is to listen (in one direction) and talk (in
other direction)
◦ 2nd layer encrypt (on one side) and decrypt (other side)
◦ 1st layer, send and receive email
 Principles of Protocol layering
Second principle
 Two objects under each layer at both sides should be
identical
 Objects under layer 3 : plain text

 Objects under layer 2: Cipher text

 Objects under layer 1: a piece of mail

 Logical Connection
 Logical connections are necessary for layer-to-layer
communication
 Both A and B can think a that there is a logical (imaginary)
connection at each layer through which they can send the
object created from that layer
 Logical Connection

Plain/text Plain/text
Logical connection

Encrypt/decrypt Encrypt/decrypt
Logical connection

Logical connection
 Networks are complex with many pieces
◦ Hosts, routers, links, applications, protocols, hardware,
software
 Can we organize it, somehow?
 Let’s consider a Web page request:
◦ Browser requests Web page from server
◦ Server should determine if access is privileged
◦ Reliable transfer page from server to client
◦ Physical transfer of “bits” from server to client
 Reasons to choose for a Layered Architecture
Change: When changes are made to one layer, the impact on the
other layers is minimized. If the model consists of a single, all-
encompassing layer, any change affects the entire model

Design: A layered model defines each layer separately. As long as

the interconnections between layers remain constant, protocol
designers can specialize in one area (layer) without worrying about
how any new implementations affect other layers.

Learning: The layered approach reduces a very complex set of

topics, activities, and actions into several smaller, interrelated
groupings. This makes learning and understanding the actions of
each layer and the model generally much easier.
 Reasons to choose for a Layered Architecture
Troubleshooting: The protocols, actions, and data contained in
each layer of the model relate only to the purpose of that layer.
This enables troubleshooting efforts to be pinpointed on the layer
that carries out the suspected cause of the problem.

Standards: Probably the most important reason for using a layered

model is that it establishes a prescribed guideline for
interoperability between the various vendors developing products
that perform different data communications tasks. Remember,
though, that layered models, including the OSI model, provide only
a guideline and framework, not a rigid standard that manufacturers
can use when creating their products.
• The OSI Reference Model (minus physical medium)
◦ OSI has not come to dominate computer networking, as
some had once expected
◦ however, it is still useful as a pedagogical tool
• The TCP/IP Reference Model
• Used in all WANs, the ARPANET, worldwide Internet
• International Standard Organization (ISO) established in
1947 is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide
agreement on international standards
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communication is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model (first introduced in 1970)
• A hierar

ISO is the organization and OSI is the model

• Principals
◦ Create a layer where a different abstraction is needed
◦ Each layer should perform a well-defined function
◦ The function of each layer should be chosen
 With target for standardization
◦ Minimize information flow across layer boundaries
◦ Number of layers
 Large: distinct functions are not in the same layer
 Small : architecture does not become complex
• Consists of 7 separate but related layers, each of which
defines a part of the process of moving information across a
network
• Seven layers of the OSI model
 The OSI model provides a conceptual understanding of LAN/WAN
internetworking
 Lower four layers are concerned with providing reliable end-to-end
communication
 Upper three layers provide user-oriented services
An exchange using the OSI model
Header: An information structure that precedes/leads and
identifies the information that follows, such as a block of
bytes in communication

Trailer: An information typically occupying several bytes,

at the tail end of a block of transmitted data and often
containing a checksum or other error-checking data useful
for confirming the accuracy and status of the transmission
FUNCTIONS OF LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
FUNCTIONS OF LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
Hop-to-hop delivery
FUNCTIONS OF LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Source-to-destination delivery
FUNCTIONS OF LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
Reliable process-to-process
delivery of a message
FUNCTIONS OF LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.
FUNCTIONS OF LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.
FUNCTIONS OF LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
Summary of layers
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly
match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application. However,
when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.

TCP/IP is a protocol suit used in the Internet today

TCP/IP and OSI model
 ADDRESSING

Any communication that involves two parties needs two

addresses: source address and destination address
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing
the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.
No address required at physical layer as the unit of data
exchange is a bit which does not definitely cannot have
any address
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
 ADDRESSING

Physical Address (also known as the link address)

 is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN
is included in the frame used by the data link layer
is the lowest-level address
The physical addresses have authority over the network
(LAN or WAN)
The size and format of these addresses vary depending on
the network. For example, Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit)
physical address that is imprinted on the network interface
card (NIC).
 Example 1

a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with

physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link (bus
topology LAN). As the figure shows, the computer with physical
address 10 is the sender, and the computer with physical
address 87 is the receiver.
 Example 2

Most local-area networks such as Ethernet a 48-bit

(6-byte) physical address written as 12 hexadecimal
digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated
by a colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

 ADDRESSING
Logical Address
 Logical addresses are necessary for universal
communications that are independent of underlying physical
networks
Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork
environment where different networks can have different
address formats.
A universal addressing system is needed in which each host
can be identified uniquely, regardless of the underlying
physical network.
The logical addresses are designed for this purpose.
A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32-bit address
that can uniquely define a host connected to the Internet.
Example: IP address
Figure shows a part of an
internet with two routers
connecting three LANs.
Each device (computer or
router) has a pair of addresses
(logical and physical) for each
connection.
Here, each computer is
connected to only one link and
therefore has only one pair of
addresses.
Each router, however, is
connected to three networks
(only two are shown in the
figure).
So each router has three pairs
of addresses, one for each
connection.
 ADDRESSING

Port Address:
There are many application running on the computer.
Each application run with a port no.(logically) on the
computer.
This port no. for application is decided by the Karnal
of the OS.
This port no. is called port address.
Example: Port Address
Figure shows two computers
communicating via the Internet.
The sending computer is
running three processes at this
time with port addresses a, b,
and c. The receiving computer
is running two processes at this
time with port addresses j and
k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to
communicate with process j in
the receiving computer. Note
that although physical
addresses change from hop to
hop, logical and port addresses
remain the same from the
source to destination.
 Example: Port Address

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by

one decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.
 ADDRESSING

Specific Address:
Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for
that specific address.
Examples: e-mail address (for example, forouzan@fhda.edu) and the
Universal Resource Locator (URL) (for example, www.mhhe.com).
The first defines the recipient of an e-mail; the second is used to find
a document on the World Wide Web
These addresses, however, get changed to the corresponding port and
logical addresses by the sending computer