Basic Statistics for Testing

Why we need statistics?

• First, statistics are used for purposes of
description. Numbers provide convenient
summaries and allow us to evaluate some
observations relative to others.

• Second, we can use statistics to make

inferences, which are logical deductions about
events that cannot be observed directly.
 Two major areas of statistics:

Descriptive Statistics: is concerned with

collection, presentation, and description of
sample data so as to yield a meaningful
information
Inferential Statistics: is concerned with the
analysis of the portion of the population to
make/draw a generalization/conclusion about
population.
 Inferential statistics
• Testing hypothesis
• Can clean water access decrease infant
mortality rate?
 Two major areas of statistics:

Descriptive Statistics: is concerned with

collection, presentation, and description of
sample data so as to yield a meaningful
information
Inferential Statistics: is concerned with the
analysis of the portion of the population to
make/draw a generalization/conclusion about
population.
Introduction to Basic Terms
Population: A collection, or set, of
individuals or objects or events whose
properties are to be analyzed.
Two kinds of populations: finite or infinite.

Sample: A subset of the population.

Variable: A characteristic about each individual element of a
population or sample.
Data (singular): The value of the variable associated with one
element of a population or sample. This value may be a
number, a word, or a symbol.
Data (plural): The set of values collected for the variable from
each of the elements belonging to the sample.
Experiment: A planned activity whose results yield a set of
data.
Parameter: A numerical value summarizing all the data of an
entire population.
Statistic: A numerical value summarizing the sample data.
Example: A college dean is interested in learning about the average age of
faculty. Identify the basic terms in this situation.

The population are the faculty members at the college.

A sample is any subset of that population. For example, we might select
10 faculty members and determine their age.
The variable is the “age” of each faculty member.
One data would be the age of a specific faculty member.
The data would be the set of values in the sample.
The experiment would be the method used to select the ages forming the
sample and determining the actual age of each faculty member in the
sample.
The parameter of interest is the “average” age of all faculty at the college.
The statistic is the “average” age for all faculty in the sample.
Two kinds of variables:
Qualitative, or Attribute, or Categorical,
Variable: A variable that categorizes or describes an
element of a population.
Note: Arithmetic operations, such as addition and
averaging, are not meaningful for data resulting from
a qualitative variable.
Quantitative, or Numerical, Variable: A variable
that quantifies an element of a population.
Note: Arithmetic operations such as addition and
averaging, are meaningful for data resulting from a
quantitative variable.
Example: Identify each of the following examples as attribute
(qualitative) or numerical (quantitative) variables.

1. The age for each student in a statistics class.

2. The amount of gasoline pumped by the next 10 customers
at the local Unimart.
3. The amount of radon in the basement of each of 25 homes
in a new development.
4. The color of the baseball cap worn by each of 20 students.
5. The length of time to complete a mathematics homework
assignment.
6. The state in which each truck is registered when stopped
and inspected at a weigh station.
Qualitative and quantitative variables may be further
subdivided:

Nominal
Qualitative
Ordinal
Variable
Interval
Quantitative
Ratio
 Scales of measurement
• Measurement is the application of rules for
assigning numbers to objects.
• There are numerous systems by which we
assign numbers in psychology.
• Three important properties make scales of
measurement different from one another:
magnitude, equal intervals, and an absolute
0
• Magnitude is the property of “moreness.“
• Equal intervals exist if the difference
between two points at any place on the scale
has the same meaning as the difference
between two other points that differ by the
same number of scale units.
• An absolute 0 is obtained when nothing of
the property being measured exists.
Types of scales
 Measurement Scales
Nominal Scale: A qualitative variable that categorizes (or
describes, or names) an element of a population.

Ordinal Scale: A qualitative variable that incorporates an

ordered position, or ranking.

Interval Scale: A quantitative variable that reflect an amount

of the variable, but zero does not truly mean zero amount.

Ratio Scale: A quantitative variable that reflect an amount,

but zero mean zero amount
 Nominal scale
This is basically a way of categorizing or
grouping behavior, where the actual numbers
are simply labels or identifiers.
• male=1, female=2, not specified=3
 Ordinal scale
Ordinal scales, more precise than nominal
scales, are basically sets of rankings.
• High school class rankings.
• Social economic class (low, middle, high)
 Interval scale
Intervals between the points are assumed to be equal.
• IQ Scores. (The difference between an IQ of 92 and
98 is the same as the difference between 130 and
136. Using 100 as the average is arbitrary.)
• Thermometer readings on a Fahrenheit scale. (The
difference between 98.6 and 99.6 is the same as the
difference between 101.8 and 102.8 -- 1 degree. The
value of zero doesn't mean "the absence of heat." )
 Ratio scale
The most precise and powerful of scales. The
zero point is meaningful and means the absence
of whatever it is you're measuring. Thus, you
cannot have a negative data point using a ratio
scale.
• A speedometer.
• Walking speed
• Really, any time or length measurement would be
on a ratio scale.
• The cost of a cup of coffee
Discrete Variable: A quantitative variable that can assume a
countable number of values. Intuitively, a discrete variable
can assume values corresponding to isolated points along a
line interval. That is, there is a gap between any two values.

Continuous Variable: A quantitative variable that can

assume an uncountable number of values. Intuitively, a
continuous variable can assume any value along a line
interval, including every possible value between any two
Note:
1. In many cases, a discrete and continuous variable may be
distinguished by determining whether the variables are
related to a count or a measurement.
2. Discrete variables are usually associated with counting.
If the variable cannot be further subdivided, it is a clue
that you are probably dealing with a discrete variable.
3. Continuous variables are usually associated with
measurements. The values of discrete variables are only
limited by your ability to measure them.
Example: Identify each of the following as examples of
qualitative or numerical variables:
1. The temperature in Barrow, Alaska at 12:00 pm on any
given day.
2. The make of automobile driven by each faculty member.
3. Whether or not a 6 volt lantern battery is defective.
4. The weight of a lead pencil.
5. The length of time billed for a long distance telephone call.
6. The brand of cereal children eat for breakfast.
7. The type of book taken out of the library by an adult.
Example: Identify each of the following as examples of (1)
nominal, (2) ordinal, (3) discrete, or (4) continuous variables:
1. The length of time until a pain reliever begins to work.
2. The number of chocolate chips in a cookie.
3. The number of colors used in a statistics textbook.
4. The brand of refrigerator in a home.
5. The overall satisfaction rating of a new car.
6. The number of files on a computer’s hard disk.
7. The pH level of the water in a swimming pool.
8. The number of staples in a stapler.
Data Collection
• First problem a statistician faces: how to
obtain the data.
• It is important to obtain good, or
representative, data.
• Inferences are made based on statistics
obtained from the data.
• Inferences can only be as good as the data.
Methods used to collect data:

1. Interview
2. Questionnaire
3. Use of Documents
4. Observation
5. Experimentation
 Sampling
• Sampling relates to the degree to which those
surveyed are representative of a specific
population

• The sample frame is the set of people who have

the chance to respond to the survey

• A question related to external validity is the

degree to which the sample frame corresponds to
the population to which the researcher wants to
apply the results (Fowler, 1988)
 Sampling
• Two basic types: probability and non-probability

• Probability sampling can include random

sampling, stratified random sampling, and cluster
sampling

• Non-probability sampling can include quota

sampling, haphazard sampling, and convenience
sampling
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Random Sampling
• Every unit has an equal chance of selection

• Although it is relatively simple, members of

specific subgroups may not be included in
appropriate proportions
 Stratified Random Sampling
• The population is grouped according to
meaningful characteristics or strata

• This method is more likely to reflect the

general population, and subgroup analysis is
possible

• However, it can be time consuming and

costly
 Systematic Sampling
• Every xth unit is selected
– (e.g., every other person entering the Swamp at Gate 1
was selected)

• The method is convenient and close to random

sampling if the starting point is randomly chosen

• Recurring patterns can occur and should be

examined
 Cluster/Multistage Sampling
• Natural groups are sampled and then their
members are sampled

• This method is convenient and can use

existing units
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Convenience Sampling
• This method uses readily available groups or units
of individuals

• It is practical and easy to use

• However, it may produce a biased sample

• Convenience sampling can be perfectly acceptable

if the purpose of the research is to test a
hypothesis that certain variables are related to one
another
 Snowball Sampling
• Previously identified members identify
others

• This method is useful when a list of

potential names is difficult to obtain

• However, it may produce a biased sample

 Quota Sampling
• The population is divided into subgroups
and the sample is selected based on the
proportions of the subgroups necessary to
represent the population

• This method depends on reliable data about

the proportions in the population
 Measures of Central Tendency
Mode: The most frequently occurring score
• 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 6: Mode is 6

Median: The score that divides a group of scores in half with 50%
falling above and 50% falling below the median.
• 3 3 3 5 8 8 8: The median is 5
• 3 3 5 6: The median is 4 (Average of two middle numbers)

Mean: Preferred whenever possible and is the only measure of

central tendency that is used in advanced statistical calculations:
• Basically, and average of all scores. Add up all scores and
divide by total number of scores.
• 2 3 4 6 10: Mean is 5 (25/5)
 Your Turn!

– Mode
• Example: 2 3 4 4 4 6 8 9 10 11 11

– Median
• Example: 2 3 4 4 4 6 8 9 10 11 11

– Mean
• Example: 2 3 4 4 4 6 8 9 10 11 11
 Terminologies
• Level of Significance is the maximum
allowable probability of rejecting a true
null hypothesis.

• Common choices for the level of

significance are α = 0.05 and α = 0.01
 Terminologies

• P-value or calculated probability is the

estimated probability of rejecting the null
hypothesis (H0) of a study question when
that hypothesis is true.
 Interpretation:

If the p-value is greater than the level of

significance
(p-value >alpha), accept or fail to reject the null
hypothesis.

If the p-value is less than the level of significance

(p-value<alpha), reject the null hypothesis and
accept the alternative hypothesis.
 What does ANOVA do?
At its simplest ANOVA tests the following
hypotheses:
H0: The means of all the groups are equal.
Ha: Not all the means are equal
• doesn’t say how or which ones differ.
• Can follow up with “multiple comparisons”

Note: we usually refer to the sub-populations as “groups”

when doing ANOVA.
Example: 3 Methods of Teaching
A B C
23 23 23
13 32 21
32 34 19
15 33 17
21 19 22
22 29 31
23 25
 MINITAB Result:
• Analysis of Variance
• Source DF SS MS F P
• Factor 2 157.1 78.6 2.40 0.121
• Error 17 557.4 32.8
• Total 19 714.6
 Decision and Conclusion
• Accept /Fail to reject the null hypothesis
because p-value 0.121 is greater than the
level of significance 0.05

• There is no significant difference among

the 3 methods of teachings.
. Is there a significant relationship between the
gender and the favourite subject of the students?

Chi-square(test of independence)

Ho: The first variable is independent of the

second variable
Ha: The first variable is dependent of the
second variable
 Example: gender and favourite
subject

Gender Math English Science

Male 324 191 223
Female 152 312 104
 Hypotheses:

• Ho: Gender is independent of the favourite

subject

• Ha: Gender is dependent of the favourite

subject.
 MINITAB Result:
• Expected counts are printed below observed counts

• Math English Science Total

• 1 324 191 223 738
• 268.98 284.24 184.78

• 2 152 312 104 568

• 207.02 218.76 142.22

• Total 476 503 327 1306

• Chi-Sq = 11.254 + 30.584 + 7.904 +

• 14.623 + 39.738 + 10.270 = 114.374
• DF = 2, P-Value = 0.000
 Decision and Conclusion
• Reject the null hypothesis because p-value
0.000 is less than the level of significance
0.05

• Gender and favourite subjects are

dependent.
 Descriptive Methods
1.Descriptive Survey Method – It uses
questionnaire or other instruments to
generate data prepared by the researcher.

2. Descriptive Normative – It deals with

standardized instruments like mental ability
test, stress and personality questionnaire,
morale and job satisfaction questionnaire.
3. Descriptive Correlational Method – It is
used to whether or not there is a relationship
that exists between two ore more quantifiable
variables, if there is, to what extent or degree
the relationship is.
4. Descriptive Evaluative Method – This
study judges the goodness of an existing
program. If it is directed to whether or not a
particular program achieved its goals or not.
5. Descriptive Assessment Method – This is a
fact-finding activity that describes conditions
that exist at a particular time such as practices
and beliefs.
6. Descriptive Comparative Method – This
method provides an explanation about the
extent of relationship between two or more
variables.
7. Longitudinal Survey - This much time
allotted to investigation of the same subjects
of two or more points in time

8. Case Study – It is an intensive and

descriptive analysis of a single subject. It
examines a social unit as a whole, and as a
unit maybe a single typical individual, a
family, a social group, a social institution, or a
community.
 Experimental Designs

True Experimental Studies allow random

assignment of participant to any conditions.

Quasi-Experimental Studies do not involve

random assignment of participants

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 Correlation Coefficient
Describes the type of relationship(the
direction Y scores change) and the
strength of relationship(the extent to
which one value of Y is consistently
paired with one value of X)
• Pearson correlation coefficient(r)
describes the type(either positive or
negative) and the strength of the linear
relationship between two interval and/or
ratio variables.
• Spearman rank-order correlation
coefficient(rs) describes the type and
strength of the linear relationship between
two ordinal variables.
 Interpretation of Correlation
Correlation Interpretation
Coefficient
0<|r|<0.3 Weak Correlation
0.3<|r|<0.7 Moderate
Correlation
|r|>0.7 Strong Correlation
 Inferential Procedure/Statistics
Parametric Inferential Statistics are usually
used with normally distributed interval or
ratio data.
Nonparametric Inferential statistics are used
with non-normal interval/ratio data, or with
nominal or ordinal data.
 Parametric Procedures and Non-
paremetric Counterparts
Number of Parametric Non-parametric Scores
Groups Scores(Interval
or Ratio) Ordinal Nominal

Two Independent Mann-Whitney Chi-square

samples t-test test
Two Dependent Wilcoxon test None
samples t-test
Three or more Between subjects Kruskal-Wallis test Chi-square
ANOVA