Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
1893
The Division of Labor
• In The Division of Labor in Society Durkheim examined how social order was
maintained in different types of societies.
• Traditional societies were held together by the fact that everyone was mostly
similar to one another. The collective consciousness is highly isomorphic with
individual consciousness.
• In modern societies, the highly complex division of labor resulted in people with
different occupational specializations. This created dependencies that tied people to
one another since no one person could fill all of his/her needs by themselves.
• Increasing division of labor leads
to rapid change in a society. This
can produce a state of confusion
regarding norms and a growing
impersonality in social life. This,
in turn, may lead to a breakdown
in the norms regulating behavior
and a sense of anomie.
THE EMERGENCE OF ORGANIC SOLIDARITY
….and the changing character of the COLLECTIVE CONSCIENCE
TYPES OF SOCIETIES
GEMEINSCHAFT GESELLSCHAFT
•Small •Large
•Isolated •Interconnected
•Rural •Urban
•Agrarian •Industrial
•Homogeneous •Heterogeneous
•Religious •Secular
•Self-Sufficient •Interdependent
•Stable •Mobile
•Changing
•Static
MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY ORGANIC SOLIDARITY
Holistic Segmented
UNCONTRACTED SOCIAL
CONTRACT FACTS
COLLECTIVE COLLECTIVE
CONSCIENCE CONSCIENCE
SOCIAL UNCONTRACTED
FACTS CONTRACT
NOMOS MECHANICAL
(NORMATIVE ORDER) SOLIDARITY
RELIGION = SOCIETY
SOCIAL COOPERATION
SOCIAL/CULTURAL PRACTICES
(COMMON SENSE)
(MORES)
NORMS
CONTRACTS
LAW
MORALITY
Our purely individual side seeks satisfaction of all wants and desires.
It knows no boundaries. Without being constrained by the collective
conscience, this side of human beings may lead to the condition that
Durkheim labels as “anomie.”
1895
Social Facts
According to Durkheim, social facts are the subject matter of
sociology. Social facts are “sui generis” (meaning of its own kind;
unique) and must be studied as distinct from biological and
psychological phenomenon.
They are guides and controls of conduct and are external to the
individual in the form of norms, mores, and folkways.
Social Facts
• EXTERIORITY
• CONSTRAINING
• HISTORICAL (WEIGHTY)
• OBJECTIVE (OBJECTIVATED)
• MORAL/VALUE-LADEN
CHARACTERISTICS
of SOCIAL FACTS
(Material and Non-Material)
EMILE DURKHEIM:
• EXTERIOR
• CONSTRAINING
• (HISTORICAL, WEIGHTY)
+
PETER BERGER:
• OBJECTIVE
• MORAL/VALUATIONAL
EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL FACTS:
●Collectivities
●Social Structures
●Institutions
●Crowd Behavior
●Social Pressure
●Fashion
●Fad
●Public Opinion
●Marriage
●Rules of the Game
>tic-tac-toe
>chess
●Language
●Money
>inflation in Germany
>J.G. Boogs
●Time
Languages are Social Facts
牛を搾り出しなさい
Facts… When asked what they were doing, each worker gave
a different answer.
Individual
Representations
Brief Thoughts on Exactness
Fish
move exactly there and exactly then,
Just as
birds have their inbuilt exact measure of time and place.
But mankind,
deprived of instinct, is aided
by scientific research, the essence of which
A poem this story shows.
A certain soldier
by had to fire a gun every evening exactly at six.
He did it like a soldier. When his exactness
Maroslov was checked, he stated:
I follow
Holub an absolutely precise chronometer in the shop window
of the clockmaker downtown. Every day at seventeen
forty-five I set my watch by it and
proceed up the hill where the gun stands ready.
At seventeen fifty-nine exactly I reach the gun
and exactly at eighteen hours I fire.
It was found
that this method of firing was absolutely exact.
There was only the chronometer to be checked.
The clockmaker downtown was asked about its exactness.
Oh, said the clockmaker,
this instrument is one of the most exact. Imagine,
for years a gun has been fired here at six exactly.
And every day I look at the chronometer
and it always shows exactly six.
So much for exactness.
And the fish move in the waters and the heavens are filled
with the murmur of wings, while
The chronographs tick and the guns thunder.
EMILE DURKHEIM’S MODEL
BEING DOMINATED BY
THE FORCES OF ONE’S OWN CREATION
REPRESENTATIONS
THE THE
INDIVIDUAL COLLECTIVE
CONSCIENCE = ISOMORPHIC = CONSCIENCE
composed of composed of
SOCIAL FACTS SOCIAL FACTS
COGNITIVE COGNITIVE
& &
EMOTIONAL EMOTIONAL
BEHAVIORS IN CONCERT
RECREATING THE
COLLECTIVE
CONSCIENCE
RE-PRESENTATIONS
1897
“Suicide” (1897): Key Concepts
Suicide as a Social Fact
Anomic Division of Labor (leftover from “Division of Labor”)
Integration
Regulation
Anomie
Suicide
• Suicide may be caused by weak social bonds.
• Social bonds are made up of social integration and
social regulation.
• Durkheim’s 4 types of suicide:
Egoistic Suicide: Individual is weakly integrated into a
society so ending their life will have little impact on the
rest of society.
Altruistic suicide: Individual is extremely attached to
the society and because of this has no real sense of
autonomy. But alternatively, a freely chosen act of self-
sacrifice.
Anomic suicide: a weak social regulation between
society’s norms and the individual, most often brought
on by dramatic economic or social changes.
Fatalistic suicide: Social regulation is completely
imposed upon the individual. With no hope of
countering the oppressive discipline of the society
the only way to escape is to take one’s own life.
Suicide
• Defined suicide as the act of severing social relationships.
• Goal was to show that an individual act is actually the result of the social
world that he would show the usefulness of sociology.
• He explored the differing suicide rates among Protestants and Catholics.
He explained how socially controlled Catholics had a lower suicide rate.
• Social integration: the integration of a group of people into the mainstream
of society.
• He concluded that abnormally high or low levels or social integration may
result in increased suicide rates.
• Results he found include:
– Suicide rates are higher for widowed, single or divorced people rather than
those who are married.
– Rates are higher for those who have no children rather than those who do .
– Rates are higher among Protestants than Catholics.
– Coroners in a Catholic country are less likely to record a suicide as the reason
of death because in Catholicism it is a sin.
Suicide as a Social Fact
Suicide rate is a social fact–
social cause/social effect
THE ARENA OF
MORAL CONFORMITY
INDIVIDUAL
INSATIABLE
APPETITES
THE
IN-GROUP
CONSCIENCE
OU T
S ID E T HE
LAW
Anomic Division of Labor
• How can we be more bonded to one another when we are
further splintered by division of labor and specialization?
• Rules emerge from the DOL because it sets up definite ways
of acting that are repeated on a daily basis, turning into
regular, stable habit. “Then the habits, as they grow in
strength, are transformed into rules of conduct.”
• This produces a real form of solidarity, interdependence built
on shared, regular expectations (duties, rights, obligations) that
are built up and extended across time.
• “If the division of labor does not produce solidarity, it is
because the relationships between the organs are not regulated;
it is because they are in a state of anomie.”
SUICIDE TYPES, ala Durkheim & Allen (& Berger):
HIGH or FATALISTIC
ALTRUISTIC
STRONG
(collectivistic) (hopelessness)
LOW or
WEAK EGOISTIC ANOMIC
(individualistic) (meaninglessness)
BERGER’S “THREE MOMENTS”
DURKHEIM’S REGULATION
(“Society in man”)
Man is a social product.
OBJECTIVATION,
SOCIAL FACTICITIES,
SOCIALLY-CONSTRUCTED
REALITY
EXTERNALIZATION,
PUTTING ONE’S SELF
INTO EFFECT Society is a human product
(“Man in society”)
DURKHEIM’S INTEGRATION
Altruistic Suicide – Excessive Integration
Jonestown
Massacre, 1978
Kamakazi pilots, 1945
Suicide bombers, 2013
Egoistic Suicide – Low Integration
Fatalistic Suicide – Excessive Regulation
Anomic Suicide –
Low Regulation
COMPARATIVE RATES OF ANOMIC SUICIDE
HIGHER LOWER
compared across cells
Men Women
Protestants Catholics
Catholics Jews
Urban Rural
Durkheim Single Married
Married w/o Married c
Children Children
Officers Enlisted Personnel
Military in Peace Military in War
Adolescents Adults
Native-Americans Euro-Americans Modern Day
Middle Aged Elderly
Anomic or Fatalistic Suicide?
Definition of Religion
Totemism
Sacred V. Profane
Collective Effervescence ~ Collective Conscience
Collective Representations
Use of the evolutionary metaphor –
and functionalist view of religion
Durkheim’s Definition of Religion
That which science refuses to grant to religion is not its right to exist, but
its right to dogmatize upon the nature of things and the special
competence which it claims for itself for knowing man and the world. As
a matter of fact, it [religion] does not know itself. It does not even know
what it is made of, nor to what need it answers.
…[religions] are grounded in and express the real…. The reasons the
faithful settle for in justifying those rites and myths may be mistaken, and
most often are; but the true reasons exist nonetheless…. Fundamentally,
then, there are no religions that are false.
COMING TO GRIPS
WITH THE SACRED
THE ABSOLUTE,
THE ULTIMATE,
THE REALLY REAL,
THE WHOLLY OTHER,
THE BEYOND WHICH ONE
CANNOT GO -
- MADE PRESENT IN THE FORM(S)
OF THE SACRED
TO WHICH ONE WANTS, NEEDS
TO BE IN THE “RIGHT”
RELATIONSHIP.
The Sacred has been described with the following characteristics:
• experienced emotionally, not intellectually
● beyond rational and ethical conceptions
• ambiguous and paradoxical
• bi-polar (creating both terror & attraction, fear & love, horror & fascination)
• radically other than the profane, the everyday, the ordinary, the prosaic
• non-empirical
• non-utilitarian, non-instrumental
• powerful, even over-powering
• awesome, requiring, even demanding our attention, observance, obeisance,
• demanding and solicitous
• attractive and repugnant
• fearsome and dangerous
• supportive and strength-giving
• spontaneous and creative
• urging humility, humbleness, and simultaneously exaltation
• daunting and fascinating
• outside of space and time
Religion presents these
dimensions, these forces, to
human beings in forms—
symbols, stories, myths,
practices—that bring them
under tenuous human control.
• Beliefs
~ theology
~ doctrine
~ ideology
• Practices
~ rites
~ rituals
• United Moral Community
~ church * family
~ temple * clan
~ mosque * tribe
~ Ummah * ethnos
~ brotherhood * nation
• Sacred Things
~ Crucifix, Cross, Lost Ark of the Covenant
~ Bible, Torah, Talmud, Koran
~ Book of Mormon
* Magna Carta
* Declaration of Independence
* U.S. Constitution
* Bill of Rights
* U.N. Declaration of Human Rights
Elementary Forms of Religious Life
• Religion is the basic form of social cohesion, which holds
complex societies together.
• Shared religious beliefs and values establish and reinforce the strength
of the Collective Conscience.
"Voodoo is older than the
world,"
Play recording
Why did Durkheim study “primitive”
society to understand religion?
Psychological need to
represent “mana” with a
material object Totems
“Mana” is
promote a
Powers are symbolized
Structural need sense of
attributed by the totem
for clan solidarity unity and
to “mana” and by sacred
solidarity
objects of the
Cultural need for among
totem
resulting permanent members
groups
The Black Stone (in Arabic: الحجر األسودal-Ḥajar al-
Aswad) is the eastern cornerstone of the Kaaba, the
ancient stone building toward which Muslims pray,
in the center of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, Saudi
Arabia. It is revered by Muslims as an Islamic relic
which, according to Muslim tradition, dates back to
the time of Adam and Eve. The stone was venerated
at the Kaaba in pre-Islamic pagan times. It was set
intact into the Kaaba's wall by the Islamic prophet
Muhammad in the year 605 A.D.
Muslim pilgrims circle the Kaaba as part of the Tawaf ritual of the Hajj.
Many of them try, if possible, to stop and kiss the Black Stone, emulating
the kiss that Islamic tradition records that it received from Muhammad. If
they cannot reach it, they point to it on each of their seven circuits
around the Kaaba.
COLLECTIVE EFFERVESCENCE
is when we feel we are a part of something
bigger than ourselves:
Is this --
The Collective Conscience?
Collective
Effervescence
Is this --
The Collective Conscience?
EMILE DURKHEIM’S MODEL
SHARED
COLLECTIVE
SENTIMENTS
EXTERNALIZATION
BEHAVIORS IN CONCERT
DURKHEIM ala PETER BERGER
BELIEFS, IDEOLOGY
INTERNALIZATION,
SOCIALIZATION,
ENCULTURALIZATION THE SACRED:
TOTEM
PARTICIPANT
OBJECTIVATION,
SOCIAL FACTICITIES,
SOCIALLY-CONSTRUCTED
REALITY
EXTERNALIZATION,
UNITED MORAL COMMUNITY:
PUTTING ONE’S SELF
INTO EFFECT TRIBE or CLAN
BELIEFS, IDEOLOGY
INTERNALIZATION,
SOCIALIZATION,
ENCULTURALIZATION THE SACRED:
BELIEVER
GOD
OBJECTIVATION,
SOCIAL FACTICITIES,
SOCIALLY-CONSTRUCTED
REALITY
EXTERNALIZATION,
UNITED MORAL COMMUNITY:
PUTTING ONE’S SELF
INTO EFFECT “CHURCH”
BELIEFS, IDEOLOGY
INTERNALIZATION,
SOCIALIZATION, THE SACRED:
ENCULTURALIZATION
MONARCH
by
DIVINE RIGHT
SUBJECT
OBJECTIVATION,
SOCIAL FACTICITIES,
SOCIALLY-CONSTRUCTED
REALITY
EXTERNALIZATION,
UNITED MORAL COMMUNITY:
PUTTING ONE’S SELF
INTO EFFECT KINGDOM
BELIEFS, IDEOLOGY
INTERNALIZATION,
SOCIALIZATION, THE SACRED:
ENCULTURALIZATION
the PEOPLE via
THE CHARTERS
OF FREEDOM*
CITIZEN
OBJECTIVATION,
SOCIAL FACTICITIES,
SOCIALLY-CONSTRUCTED
REALITY
EXTERNALIZATION,
UNITED MORAL COMMUNITY:
PUTTING ONE’S SELF
INTO EFFECT NATION-STATE
*THE DECLARATION
OF INDEPENDENCE,
THE CONSTITUTION &
THE BILL OF RIGHTS
,
EMILE DURKHEIM’S MODEL
BEING DOMINATED BY
THE FORCES OF ONE’S OWN CREATION
REPRESENTATIONS
THE THE
INDIVIDUAL COLLECTIVE
CONSCIENCE = ISOMORPHIC = CONSCIENCE
composed of composed of
SOCIAL FACTS SOCIAL FACTS
COGNITIVE COGNITIVE
& &
EMOTIONAL EMOTIONAL
BEHAVIORS IN CONCERT
RECREATING THE
COLLECTIVE
CONSCIENCE
RE-PRESENTATIONS
Religion and Collective Conscience
• These social categories shape how we think and orient
ourselves to world: time, space, quality . . .
It was a unified system of beliefs and practices in response to the Sacred that
united into one single moral community all those who adhere to them.”