Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
PREPARED BY :
HAGAR RAFAT ABDELGHANY
4th LEVEL OF MICROBIOLOGY , BOTANY DEPARTMENT
SUPERVISOR :
PROF.DR.ATTIYA HAMED AHMED MOHAMEDIN
Professor of Microbiology , Botany Department , Faculty of Science , Mansoura University .
2018/2019
PHAGE THERAPY :
AN ALTERNATIVE TO ANTIBIOTICS IN THE
AGE OF MULTI-DRUG RESISTANCE
Bacteriophage :
bacterial virus that
infect the bacteria
and reproduced by
their host in
biosynthetic
pathway .
- Biotechnological advances have expanded the potential of therapeutics , include
novel strategies such as bioengineered phages and purified phage lytic proteins .
- used as either an alternative or a supplement to antibiotic treatments.
- both Antibacterial therapies , whether phages or antibiotics , each have relative
advantages and disadvantages; so many considerations must be taken into account
when designing novel therapeutics for preventing and treating bacterial infections .
Introduction :
phages make up the most abundant biological entity on Earth (With an estimated
10^31 - 10^32 phages in the world) and play an important and critical role in regulating
bacterial populations; phages are responsible for the death of approximately
20%-40% of all marine surface bacteria every 24 h .
Almost a decade before the discovery of penicillin ; the practice of phage
therapy as a treatment for bacterial was developed (e.g. Shigella dysenteriae
as early as 1919. )
Much of the argument and controversy surrounding phage therapy was due to
* poor documentation of it’s use
* variable success
* how little was known about phages at the time of their discovery
* the nature of their existence (until they were visualized in the 1940’s after the
invention of electron microscopy. )
* A number of logistical and technical obstacles led to leave the phage
therapy after the discovery of antibiotics .
in the mid-20th century , The advent of pharmaceutical antibiotics, with a better
understanding of disease and sanitation, revolutionized healthcare and improved both
quality of life and life expectancy in the industrialized world. Antibiotics helped in a new
era in medicine, rapidly becoming an indispensable medical tool.
Admonitions of a return to “the pre-antibiotic era” have become increasingly common and
regulatory organizations such as the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and World Health
Organization (WHO) have declared antibiotic resistance is a threat to global health.
Since the discovery of antibiotics, there has been a steady stream of novel antibacterial
pharmaceuticals in what has been called the “antibiotic pipeline”. But due to the rate at
which bacteria evolve resistance to antibiotics, there has been less commercial interest in
the research and development of novel compounds of antibiotics .
Antibiotic resistance genes to common antibiotics , including ( β-lactams, aminoglycosides ,
tetracycline and chloramphenicol ) were a danger and major threat to medical treatment of
common diseases , and these genes now appear to be abundant and spread in the environment.
Which reduce effectiveness of antibiotics against common infections , particularly the
difficult-to-treat nosocomial infections caused by the ESKAPE pathogens (Enterococcus
faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp.)
According to the United Kingdom government’s 2016 Review on Antimicrobial Resistance , an
estimated 700,000 people die each year globally from resistant infections and a death toll of 10
million by 2050 .
In the United States, methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) infections alone more deaths than
HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis combined
In the years of 1983-1987, there were 16 new pharmaceutical antibiotics approved by the
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) , this number has steadily trended downwards and
between 2010-2016 only 6 new antibiotics were approved.
At the end of the antibiotic pipeline is the carbapenem class of antibiotics , often reserved
as the “last resort” due to their adverse effects on health.
in 2000, the incidence of carbapenem-resistant infections began to increase in the United
States; due to the lack of treatment options , these infections are associated with a 40%-
50% mortality rate.
On 21 September 2016, the United Nations General Assembly convened to discuss the
problem of antibiotic resistance and Consider it “the greatest and most urgent global risk”.
In the search for alternative strategies for prophylaxis and control of bacterial infection,
one of the more popular suggestions involves revisiting the practice of phage therapy.
PROPONENTS OF PHAGE THERAPY SEE A SEVERAL MAJOR ADVANTAGES THAT
PHAGES HAVE OVER ANTIBIOTICS SUCH AS
HOST-SPECIFICITY, SELF AMPLIFICATION, BIOFILM DEGRADATION, AND LOW
TOXICITY TO HUMANS. OWING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANALYTICAL TOOLS
CAPABLE OF STUDYING THESE SMALL BIOLOGICAL ENTITIES (APPROXIMATELY
25-200 NM IN LENGTH), SUCH AS ELECTRON MICROSCOPY AND NEXT
GENERATION SEQUENCING ANALYSIS , THESE TECHNOLOGICAL
ADVANCEMENTS WERE A GUIDE IN A RENAISSANCE OF PHAGE THERAPY
RESEARCH WITH A WAVE OF HUMAN CLINICAL TRIALS AND ANIMAL
RESEARCH .
the field of phage biology is only now reaching maturity and
These technological advancements were a guide in a
renaissance of phage therapy research as indicated by a wave of
recent human clinical trials and animal research .
Phage biology basics :
Phages are simple , yet incredibly diverse, non-
living biological entities consisting of DNA or RNA
enclosed within a protein capsid , incapable of
reproducing independently (i.e., non-living) and
dependent on a bacterial host for survival.
Phages typically bind to specific receptors on the
bacterial cell surface, inject their genetic material
into the host cell, and then either integrate this
material into the bacterial genome (so called “
lysogenic or temperate ” phages) and reproduce
from mother to daughter cell, or hijack the
bacterial replication machinery to produce the
next generation of phage progeny and lyse the cell
(so-called “lytic or virulent ” phages).
Conventional phage therapy relies on strictly lytic
phages , which obligately kill their bacterial host.
Host specificity varies among phages, some of which are strain-specific , others infect
a range of bacterial strains and even genera .
The most common lytic phages associated with human pathogens and the gut microbiota
are in the orders
Caudovirales , commonly known as “tailed phages” which contain double stranded DNA
genomes , and
Microviridae , which are tailless, single-stranded DNA viruses.
History of phage therapy
in 1915 Frederick Twort first described the characteristic zone of lysis associated with phage
infection, but in 1917 Felix d’Herelle who identified the source of this phenomenon , he
called and refer this plaques to bacterial viruses, and coined the term “bacteriophage”
(literally “ bacteria eater ”)
in 1940’s phage therapy was widely dismissed by most of western medicine after the
introduction of pharmaceutical antibiotics . The exception to this is in the former Soviet
Union and Eastern Europe , where clinical phage therapy has been used extensively to
treat antibiotic-resistant infections caused by a range of infectious bacteria such as
Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella, and E. coli.
Applications
* collection :
collecting local samples of water likely to contain high quantities of bacteria and
bacteriophages ( sewage ) .
The samples are taken and applied to the bacteria , If the bacteria die , the mixture is
centrifuged ; the phages collect on the top of the mixture and can be drawn off .
The phage solutions are then tested to see which ones show
growth inhibition effects (lysogeny)
or
destruction (lysis)
The phage showing lysis are then amplified on cultures of the target bacteria, passed
through a filter , then distributed .
* Treatment :
Phages in practice are applied orally, topically on infected wounds or spread onto
surfaces, or used during surgical procedures. Injection ( intraperitoneal , intravenous
or intranasal ) is rarely used , avoiding any risks may present during bacterial
amplification stage which may result in a trace chemical contaminants, that will
recognizing by the immune system which naturally fights against viruses introduced
into the bloodstream or lymphatic system.
In February 2019, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the first clinical
trial of intravenously administered phage therapy in the United States.
Topical administration often involves application to gauzes that are laid on the area to
be treated.
intravenous phage drip therapy was successfully used to treat a patient with
Multi Drug Resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in San Diego.
Phage Powders :
simpler to handle and easier to
transport .
2- The need for a regulatory testing for safety harder and more expensive under current
rules in most countries ,so it will be difficult in the large-scale use of phage therapy.
3- bacteria can evolve and alter different receptors either before or during treatment ;
this can prevent phages from completely destroying bacteria .
4- No lytic phage has yet been discovered for Clostridium difficile, which is responsible for
many nosocomial diseases , but some lysogenic phages are known for this species ; this
opens encouraging ways but with additional risks .
because Funding for phage therapy research and clinical trials is generally insufficient and
difficult to obtain , since it is a lengthy and complex process to patent bacteriophage
products.
5- Due to the specificity of phages, phage therapy would be most effective with a cocktail
injection , which is generally rejected by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
6- The negative public conception of viruses .
PHAGE AGAINST CLINICALLY
SIGNIFICANT PATHOGENS :
* in animal models (hamster model); by oral and Intraperitoneal administration
* In human trials ;there is an Effective applications (therapeutic and prophylactic) ; range
from surgical to gastroenterological applications .
- Ex(1): in treat antibiotic unresponsive diabetic foot ulcers in a 6 patient, a topical
application of S. aureus-specific phage was sufficient for recovery in all individuals .
-Ex(2): in 1938 clinical trial , 219 patients with bacterial dysentery were treated with a
phage cocktail consisting of a variety of phage targeting a various number of bacteria ,
cocktails were administered both orally and rectally .
Within 24 h, 28% of patients with blood in their stools were relieved of this symptom, with
a further 27% showing improvement within 2-3 d. Overall, 74% of the 219 patients showed
improvement or were completely relieved of symptoms.
-Ex(3): in 1974 a group of 18577 children with typhoid epidemic, using typhoid phages.
Phage administration resulted in a 5-fold decrease in typhoid incidence compared to
placebo .
currently in the European Union or United States there are no phage therapy
products approved for human use , but in food industry, there are several
commercial phage preparations used for biocontrol of bacterial pathogens
that are approved by the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) under the
classification of “generally considered as safe.” These preparations are used
against Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, MRSA, E. coli O157:H7,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Campylobacter spp., and Pseudomonas syringae,
among others .
-Ex(4): it can be an effective method for improving food safety at
numerous stages in meat production and processing , reduce bacterial
contamination in fruits, vegetables, and in dairy products .
-Ex(5): gene editing tool CRISPR/Cas have created novel chances for phage
therapy. One example is the use of bioengineered phage to deliver a
CRISPR/Cas programmed to disrupt antibiotic resistance genes and destroy
antibiotic resistance plasmids.
A summary of human phage therapy trials
and the range of target sites/infections
DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION OF
PHAGE-DERIVED LYTIC PROTEINS :
the most promising of advances in phage therapy is the isolation of phage-encoded lytic enzymes , which are functionally similar to the antimicrobial eukaryotic enzyme lysozyme.
* It opens the possibility for the development of novel
phage-based pharmaceuticals .
* These Genes are expressed in the bacterial host during the lytic cycle and assist the phage to release viral progeny by hydrolyzing the cell wall.
Two major protein classes :
1- The transmembrane protein ( holin )
2- peptidoglycan cell wall hydrolases protein endolysin (lysin)
* both are work together to lysis the bacterial cell
* considered as antimicrobial agent
* some are highly specific but others can exhibit broad-spectrum
activity between strains and even between species .
* fast acting , potent , and inactive against eukaryotic cells.
The transmembrane peptidoglycan cell wall
protein hydrolases protein
( holin ) endolysin (lysin)
accumulate in the cell membrane Access to cell membrane from the
during phage assembly and trigger a opening and hydrolyze the cell wall
huge pores on the cytoplasmic side
of the cell membrane allowing the
lysin proteins to access
incapable of lysis bacterial cell capable of lysis bacterial cell
alone alone
Infect Gram-negative bacteria Infect Gram-positive bacteria
broad killing spectrum by
cleaving peptidoglycan linkage of
bacterial membrane
- Pinholins accumulate in the periplasm as inactive
can be mass produced through membrane-tethered enzymes.
common recombinant techniques - pinholin breakdown the proton motive force
Ex : recently discovered (PMF), allowing the endolysin to fold to an active
lysin ABgp46 . form and hydrolyze bonds in the peptidoglycan
cell wall.
- a spanin complex disrupt the outer membrane by
fusion of the inner and outer membranes
PHAGE THERAPY VS ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY :
Both antibiotics and phages function as
antibacterial , but there are several differences
make each antibacterial more or less appropriate
depending on the situation.
1- Safety :
Antibiotics Phage
- oral phage administration is generally safe .
- majority of adverse reactions - The phage is translocated across the
are allergic reactions ; include intestinal epithelium then circulate within
the blood .
anaphylaxis, nephrotoxicity, - phage tran slocation may benefit the host by
cardiotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, - down regulating the immune response to
and neurotoxicity. indigenous gut microbe antigens through
the inhibition of interleukin-2, tumor
- associated with specific necrosis factor, and interferon gamma
production.
classes of antibiotics or with the - some studies discovered a host innate
product of high tissue con cen immune response aimed at removing phage
trations . after administration in mice .
2 – specificity
Antibiotics Phage
- possibility of large scale - limits the possibility of largescale production and distribution
due to high host specificity
production and distribution . - phages tend to be specific towards both species and strain.
- collateral effects of broad - The current collateral damage is limited , but compared to
spectrum antibiotics on antibiotics ;
- less perturbation of the gut microbiome and reducing gut
gut microbes , such as carriage of pathogens such as Shigella sonnei and uropathogenic
antibiotic-associated E. coli.
- Constraints : phage therapy could be less effective against
diarrhea and C. difficile infections such as infected burn wounds, which are often
infection. colonized by more than one strain of bacteria . This can be
overcome by creating phage cocktails infective against a range
- risk of asthma , obesity, of known pathogens .
and diabetes.
3 – biofilm penetration
Antibiotics Phage
high doses of antibiotics are required Phages, are equipped with enzymes
to observe (e.g., EPS depolymerase) on the exterior
of the capsid that degrade the extracellular
- any inhibition of bacterial growth polymeric substances (EPS) and disperse
- and complete eradication is rare bacterial biofilms, allowing the phage to
- and regrowth of colonies begins access bacteria embedded within the EPS
after the end of antibiotic matrix .
treatments .
high concentrations can result in Phage treatment can not only degraded
tissue toxicity . existing biofilms , but also prevented
additional formation of biofilm by the
pathogen .
Conclusion
The available studies on the use of phages and phage derived proteins for combating
bacterial infections, specifically those of multidrug-resistant bacteria, increasingly
shows promise for the probability of phage therapy as either an alternative or a
supplement to antibiotics . But we still need a better understanding of the interaction
between phage, microbiome, and human host before implementing phage therapy on a
large scale.
But despite the promising findings on phage and phage-derived lytic proteins, it is likely
that no panacea (a solution for all difficulties or diseases ) for antibiotic-resistant infections will
arise.
Although much is still unknown about the interactions between phage, bacteria, and
human host, the time to take phage therapy seriously seems to be rapidly approaching.