Chemistry

Chapter 12 - Solutions

Right now:
Make a list of solutions

1
 Chapter 12 Assignments
• 12.1 Review 103/1-6
• 12.2 Review 105/1-4
• 12.3 Review 107/1-5
• 110/4-6

2
 Types of Mixtures
• Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or
more substances in a single phase.
• Solvent – the substance in which the solute
dissolves.
• Solute – the substance, of which there is less,
that dissolves in the solvent.
• Suspensions – large particles in a solvent
where they settle out (because of gravity)
unless continually mixed.
• Colloids – mixtures where particles are larger
than those in a solution but smaller than in a
3
suspension.
 Table 1 - Types of solutions
Solute State Solvent state Example
gas gas oxygen in nitrogen
gas liquid CO2 in water
liquid liquid alcohol in water
liquid solid Hg in Ag and Sn (dental
amalgam)
solid liquid sugar in water
solid solid Cu in Ni (alloy)

4
 Table 2 – Classes of Colloids
Class of colloid Phases Example
Sol solid dispersed in liquid paints, mud
Gel solid network extending gelatin
throughout liquid
Liquid emulsion liquid dispersed in a liquid milk, mayonnaise
Foam gas dispersed in liquid sharing cream, whipped
cream
Solid Aerosol solid dispersed in gas smoke, auto exhaust
Liquid Aerosol liquid dispersed in gas fog, mist, clouds, aerosol
spray
Solid Emulsion liquid dispersed in solid cheese, butter

5
 Testing for Colloids – Tyndal Effect
• A beam of light will pass through a solution
• A beam of light passed through a colloid will
scatter the light, making the beam visible.

• http://pixshark.com/tyndall-effect-fog.htm

6
 Conduct Electricity?
• Electrolytes - Those solutions that will conduct
electricity.
• These are usually formed when ionic
compounds (such as NaCl) or when highly
polar molecules (such as HCl) are dissolved in
water.
• Nonelectrolytes – those that will NOT conduct
electricity. A sample is sugar (a nonpolar
colvalent substance) dissolved in water.
7
Thursday, 3.26.2015
• Extra Credit (3 points) – Draw a science
related picture/figure/? To enter in our Fine
Arts Festival. Due by Monday, 3/30.
• Lab 5 due tomorrow ASOP.
• Perform Lab 6 tomorrow. No prelab. Yeah!!!
Remember to bring 3 shiny pennies or else
you will have to scratch off oxidation with
steel wool.
• Needed today: pencil, 1 sheet paper
• Have Ch 12.1 review page on your desk and
quickly show me that you did it (both sides).
8
 Factors Affecting Dissolving
• Temperature
• Surface Area
• Stirring

9
Temperature has an effect on solubility
20oC 210 g 30oC 210 g
sugar sugar

All the
Undis-
sugar is
100 mL
solved
100 mL dis-
H2O sugar H2O
solved

solubility: the amount of a solute that will dissolve in a

particular solvent at a particular temperature and
pressure.
10
 Temperature and solubility

Temperature does not have the same

effect on the solubility of all solutes 11
The rate of solubility increases:
- with an increase in temperature

At higher temperatures:
- solid solutes (like salt and sugar) are more
soluble
- gases are less soluble
with an increase in surface area of the solute

12
 Seltzer water is a
supersaturated solution
of CO2 in water
This solution is unstable, and
the gas “undissolves” rapidly
(bubbles escaping)

supersaturation: term used to describe

when a solution contains more
dissolved solute than it can hold.

13
 Solubility Values
• The solubility of a substance is the amount of
that substance required to form a saturated
solution with a specific amount of solvent at a
specified temperature.
Table 4 Solubility of Solutes as a Function of Temperature in g solute/100. g H20.

Substance 0 20 40 60 80 100
C12 H22 O11 179 204 238 287 362 487
Li2CO3 1.54 1.33 1.17 1.01 0.85 0.72

14
 Like Dissolves Like
• Dissolving depends on:
• Bonding type
• Polar or nonpolar
• Intermolecular forces between solute and
solvent.
• Ionic compounds are generally soluble in
water and the ions become hydrated.
• Ionic compounds are generally NOT soluble in
nonpolar solvents.

15
Not everything dissolves in water. Why not?

In general, Polar solvents dissolve polar solutes

“like” dissolves
“like” Nonpolar solvents dissolve nonpolar solutes

16
 Solvents
• Immiscible – liquids that are not soluble in
each other.
• Miscible – liquids that dissolve freely in one
another in any proportion.
• What solvents do you have at your house?
• Mineral oil, turpentine, paint remover, nail
polish remover
• Water is called the universal solvent because it
dissolves both ionic and covalent compounds.

17
 Two special solvents
Ethanol and Toluene
• http://www.easychem.com.au/production-of-
materials/renewable-ethanol/ethanol-as-a-
solvent

• http://toxtown.nlm.nih.gov/text_version/che
micals.php?id=30

18
 For each of these do the following
on paper.
• Chemical Name
• Chemical Formula
• Lewis Diagram (show lone pairs)
• Structural diagram (3 D)
• Polar or Nonpolar and why
• Uses
• Concerns (due eop)

19
 Ethanol
Structural
Formula –
show lone
pairs on
this 

Structural
formula
3D

20
Toluene

21
 Water as a solvent

Not chemically bonded

hydration: the process of molecules with any charge separation

to collect water molecules around them.

22
 Reactions in liquids
Life involves many complex chemical reactions
that only occur in aqueous solutions!

A step in the Krebs cycle – this is how energy is

extracted from glucose 23
 Pressure and solubility
• The solubility of gases are affected greatly by
pressure (not solids and liquids).
• When a soda bottle is opened, the pressure is
decreased and the gas (CO2) can escape from the
liquid. That is the “fizzing”.
• Henry’s Law – The solubility of a gas in a liquid is
directly proportional to the partial pressure of
that gas on the surface of the liquid.

24
 Enthalpy of Solution
• The amount of energy released or absorbed at
heat when a specific amount of solute dissolves in
a solvent.
http://openstudy.com

http://blog.science-matters.org
25
 12.3 Concentration & Solubility

concentration: the amount of each solute compared to the

total solution.

26
 There are several ways to express concentration
mass of solute (g )
concentration (g / L ) 
volume of solution (L )

mass of solute (g )
concentration (%)   100
mass of solution (g )

moles of solute (mole )

concentration (molarity , M ) 
volume of solution (L )
molality, m = moles solute
kg solvent
27
Suppose you dissolve 10.0 g of sugar in 90.0 g of
water. What is the mass percent concentration of
sugar in the solution?
Asked: The mass percent concentration
Given: 10 g of solute (sugar) and 90 g of
solvent (water)
Relationships:
mass of solute
concentration   100%
total mass of solution
Solve:
10 g sugar
concentration   100%  10% sugar
10  90 g of solution
28
Calculate the molarity of a salt solution made by
adding 6.0 g of NaCl to 100 mL of distilled water.
Asked: Molarity of solution
Given: Volume of solvent = 100.0 mL,
mass of solute (NaCl) = 6.0 g
Relationships: Formula mass NaCl
Form. Mass = 22.99 + 35.45 = 58.44 g/mole
1,000 mL = 1.0 L, therefore 100 ml = 0.10 L

M = moles = 6.0g NaCl 1 mole NaCl = 1.03 M NaCl

L LL LlLlLL0.100 L llll58.44 g NaCl

29
Calculate the molality, m of a solution containing 350.9
g of NaCl in 750.0 g of water. (Density of water is
1g/mL.)

Find the molar mass of NaCl:

22.99 + 35.45 = 58.44 g/mol

Mass to mole conversion:

350.9 g NaCl 1 mole = 6.004 mole NaCl
58.44g

m = moles solute = 6.004 mole NaCl = 8.005 m

kg solvent 0.7500kg

30
What happens when you add 10 g of sugar to
100 mL of water?
10 g
sugar

100 mL
Water molecules H2O
dissolve sugar
molecules Conc. (%) = 10 g/110 g
31
What happens when you add 10 g of sugar to
100 mL of water?

But when two sugar molecules find each other,

they will become “undissolved” (solid) again…
… then, they become redissolved in water again.
32
What happens when you add 10 g of sugar to 100 mL of water?

saturation: situation that occurs when the

amount of dissolved solute in a solution gets high
enough that the rate of “undissolving” matches
the rate of dissolving.

This is an aqueous equilibrium!

33
 Preparing a solution
How to prepare a 500.0 mL solution of a 1.0 M CaCl2 solution.
M, molarity = moles solute / liter solution

Molar mass of CaCl2 1.Determine the formula mass

 40.078   2  35.43  of the solute.
 110.98 g / mole

34
 Preparing a solution
How to prepare a 500.0 mL solution of a 1.0 M CaCl2 solution.

1. Determine the formula mass of the solute.

Molar mass of CaCl2:
110.98 g/mole 2. Use the formula mass of the solute
1.0 M 
1.0 mole 0.5 mole

to determine the grams of solute
1.0 L 0.5 L
needed.
We need 0.5 moles CaCl2

35
 Preparing a solution
How to prepare a 500.0 mL solution of a 1.0 M CaCl2 solution.

Molar mass of CaCl2:1. Determine the formula mass of the solute.

110.98 g/mole 2. Use the formula mass of the solute to determine the
grams of solute needed.
1.0 mole 0.5 mole
1.0 M  
1.0 L 0.5 L

We need 0.5 moles CaCl2

110.98 g
0.5 moles 
1 mole
 55.49 g CaCl 2

We need 55.49 g CaCl2

36
 Preparing a solution
How to prepare a 500.0 mL solution of a 1.0 M CaCl2 solution.

1. Determine the formula mass of the solute.

2. Use the formula mass of the solute to determine the
grams of solute needed.
3. Weigh the grams of solute on the balance.

37
 Preparing a solution
How to prepare a 500.0 mL solution of a 1.0 M CaCl2 solution.

1. Determine the formula mass of the solute.

2. Use the formula mass of the solute to determine the
grams of solute needed.
3. Weigh the grams of solute on the balance.
4. Add the solute to a volumetric flask or graduated
cylinder.

38
 Preparing a solution
How to prepare a 500.0 mL solution of a 1.0 M CaCl2 solution.

1. Determine the formula mass of the solute.

2. Use the formula mass of the solute to determine the
grams of solute needed.
3. Weigh the grams of solute on the balance.
4. Add the solute to a volumetric flask or graduated
500.0 mL
cylinder.
mark
Do not fill all 5. Fill the flask about two thirds of the way up with
the way up distilled water.

39
 Preparing a solution
How to prepare a 500.0 mL solution of a 1.0 M CaCl2 solution.

1. Determine the formula mass of the solute.

2. Use the formula mass of the solute to determine the
grams of solute needed.
3. Weigh the grams of solute on the balance.
4. Add the solute to a volumetric flask or graduated
cylinder.
5. Fill the flask about two thirds of the way up with
distilled water.
6. Mix the solution until the solid dissolves completely.

40
 Preparing a solution
How to prepare a 500.0 mL solution of a 1.0 M CaCl2 solution.

1. Determine the formula mass of the solute.

2. Use the formula mass of the solute to determine the
grams of solute needed.
3. Weigh the grams of solute on the balance.
4. Add the solute to a volumetric flask or graduated
cylinder.
5. Fill the flask about two thirds of the way up with
distilled water.
6. Mix the solution until the solid dissolves completely.
7. Fill the volumetric flask or graduated cylinder up to the
correct volume marker.

41
 Ways to express concentration:
mass of solute (g )
concentration (g / L ) 
volume of solution (L )

mass of solute (g )
concentration (%)   100
mass of solution (g )

moles of solute (mole )

concentration (molarity , M ) 
volume of solution (L )
Molality, m = moles solute
kg solvent
A higher temperature causes higher:
- solubility of solutes how much
- rates of solubility how fast
42
What do you remember?
M stands for
molarity
m stands for
molality
Molarity is
moles solute/L solution
Molality is
moles solute/kg solvent

43
Two other ways to determine concentration:
g/L
% when comparing mass of solvent with mass of
solution
Methods to dissolve faster:
stirring, heating, smaller pieces (yielding
larger surface area)

44
Cleo,

Will you go to the prom with me?

Yours forever,
Tony

45
Antonio,

I thought you would never ask!

Cleopatra
46
Chapter 13
Ions in Aqueous Solutions
& Colligative Properties
Book Asgns:
458/1,2(a-f),3,5,8
459/18-20,22
459/26,28,37,39,41
47
 Compounds in Aqueous Solutions
Reaction rate is generally dependent upon
concentration – greater concentration means
reaction occurs faster
Heat of solution – energy absorbed or released
when a solute dissolves in a particular solvent
exothermic, loss of energy (gives off energy)
or negative heat of solution (feels hot)
endothermic, energy absorbed (feels cold) or
positive heat of solution
48
 Exothermic – energy lost

Endothermic – energy gained

49
 What changes is the enthalpy

NH4NO3(s) + H2O(l) → NH4+(aq) + NO3–(aq) ∆H = +25.7 kJ/mole

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ∆H = –56 kJ/mole

enthalpy: the energy potential of a chemical

reaction measured in joule per mole (J/mole)
or kilojoules per mole (kJ/mole).

50
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ∆H = –56 kJ/mole

Heat released by Heat gained by

the reaction = the solution

∆Hreaction ∆Hsolution
= –56 kJ/mole = +56 kJ/mole

Opposite signs!

51
 Solution vs. pure solvent

Salt dissociates into ions,

which fit in between water
molecules

Volumes of solute and

20 g salt 80 mL 87 mL solvent do not add up
water solution! to the volume of solution

52
 13.1 Compounds in Aqueous
Solutions
• Dissociation is the separation of ions that
occurs when an ionic compound dissolves.
• Ionization occurs when covalent compounds
dissolve in a solvent.

53
 Electrolyte solutions
Aqueous solutions containing dissolved ions are able to conduct electricity

1 mole of solute → 2 moles of ions

1 mole of solute → 3 moles of ions

The greater the number of particles in solution, the greater the effects.

54
Table 1 General Solubility Guidelines
1. Sodium, potassium, and ammonium compounds are
soluble in water.
2. Nitrates, acetates, and chlorate are soluble.
3. Most chlorides are soluble, except those of silver, mercury
(I), and lead. Lead (II) chloride is soluble in hot water.
4. Most sulfates are soluble, except those of barium,
strontium, lead, calcium, and mercury.
5. Most carbonates, phosphates, and silicates are insoluble,
except those of sodium, potassium, and ammonium.
6. Most sulfides are insoluble, except those of calcium,
strontium, sodium, potassium, and ammonium.

55
• 436 Practice

56
 Net Ionic Equations
Identify the precipitate that forms when aqueous solutions of potassium
sulfate and barium nitrate are combined. Write the net ionic equation.

K2SO4(aq) +Ba(NO3)2(aq) --> KNO3(aq)+BaSO4 (s)

2K+1(aq) + SO4 –2(aq) + Ba+2(aq) + 2NO3-1 (aq) --> 2K+1(aq) + 2NO3 -1(aq) +BaSO4 (s)

2K+1(aq) + SO4 –2(aq) + Ba+2(aq) + 2NO3-1 (aq) --> 2K+1(aq) + 2NO3 -1(aq) +BaSO4 (s)

Net ionic equation:

SO4 –2 (aq) + Ba+2 (aq) --> + BaSO4 (s)

57
440 - Net Ionic Equations Practice. Solubility Chart needed.
1. Will a precipitate form if solutions of potassium
sulfate and barium nitrate are combined? If so,
write the net ionic equation for the reaction.

3. Will a precipitate form if solutions of barium

chloride and magnesium sulfate are combined? If
so, write the net ionic equation for the reaction.

58
13.2 Colligative Properties of Solutions

Why does ice melt

when salt is
sprinkled on it?

59
Freezing point depression
Why does ice
melt when salt is
sprinkled on it?
Pure water freezes
at 0oC, but a water
and salt solution
freezes at a lower
temperature.

60
colligative property: physical property of a solution that depends
only on the number of dissolved solute particles not on the type (or
nature) of the particle itself. **
more less
Pure solvent
Solid formation is not
hindered
Entropy
Order

Solution
Solute particles “get in the
way” of solid formation
less more

** Affects on the solvent with a dissolved solute:

Boiling point will elevate (Dtb) and the Freezing point will
depress (Dtf).
61
To calculate the freezing point of a solution:
Freezing point
depression constant
D Tf = Kf x m
Change in freezing molality
Point, oC

Do not get
confused with
molarity, M
(moles solute / L of
solution)
62
 Calculate the freezing point of a 1.8 m aqueous solution
of antifreeze that contains ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) as
the solute.
Asked: The freezing point of a 1.8 m solution of ethylene glycol
Given: molality, m = 1.8 m; Kf = 1.86oC/m (Kf , freezing point
depression for water, the solvent – see chart on pg
448.)
DTf  Kf  m
DTf  Kf  m  1.86o C m  1.8 m  3.35 oC
Freezing point of antifreeze solution  0 oC  3.35 oC   3.35 oC

The freezing point is lowered by 3.35oC.

63
Freezing Point Depression Problem: Use table 2, page 448.
A solution consists of 10.3 g of the nonelectrolyte glucose,
C6H1206, dissolved in 250. g water. What is the freezing point
depression of the solution?
Molar mass of
C6H1206
6C 6x12 = 72
12 H 12x1 = 12
6 (0) 6x16 = 96
180 g/mol
Mass = 10.3 g C6H1206 --> moles
250. g H20 --> kg = 0.250 kg H20
Find m --> find Dtf
m = mol solute = 10.3 g C6H1206 1 mol = 0.229 m
kg solvent 0.250 kg H20 180 g
Dtf = m Kf = 0.229 m -1.86 oC = - 0.426 oC
m
64
Freezing Point Depression Problem: Use table 2, page 448.
2. In a laboratory experiment, the freezing point of an aqueous
solution of glucose is found to be -0.325 oC. What is the molal
concentration of this solution?

65
Freezing Point Depression Problem: Use table
2, page 448.
3. If 0.500 mol of a nonelectrolyte solute are
dissolved in 500.0 g of ether, what is the
freezing point of the solution?
0.500 mol solute
0.500 kg ether
0.5 / 0.5 = 1 molal
D tf =? oC Kf ether = -l.79 oC / m
D tf = m Kf = (1 m )(-l.79 oC / m) = -l.79 oC
New freezing pt = (-116.3 – 1.79)oC = -118.1 oC

66
Ionization occurs when covalent compounds
dissolve in a solvent.
Water reacting with molecular compounds
containing H can release a H+ (a proton) and
form an H30+ ion (hydronium ion).
Sample:

HCl + H20 --> H30+ + Cl-

The HCl is ionizing.

67
 Strength of Electrolytes
Strong Electrolytes dissolve well in aqueous
solution and conduct electricity well even when
in dilute solution. (HCl, HBr, HI)
-
HCl + H20 --> Cl + H30+
Weak Electrolytes don’t dissolve well in aq.
soln., conduct electricity poorly, and contain
ions and molecules.(HF, HC2H302)
HF + H20 H30+ + F –
HC2H302 + H20 H30+ + C2H302 -

68
 Ch 13 Assignments
• From the book:
• 458/1,2(a-f),3,5,8
• 459/18-20,22
• 459/26,28,37,39,41

69
Reaction rates increase with:
increasing concentrations
increasing temperatures

Solution vs. pure solvent

density (solution) > density (pure solvent)
colligative properties: freezing point depression is an
example

70
Ch 12 & 13 Formula list continued:
mass of solute (g )
concentration (g / L ) 
volume of solution (L )

mass of solute (g )
concentration (%)   100
mass of solution (g )

moles of solute (mole )

concentration (molarity , M ) 
volume of solution (L )
molality, m = moles solute
kg solvent
DTf  Kf  m
71