Chapter 5: Discourse

EDSENG 11 : Translations of Text

MWF 8:00-9:00pm E33 B4-57
Group 3
 DISCOURSE
It is a mode, category or expression.
In grammar, we speak of discourse as
direct or indirect:
Direct: She said, “I’m sleepy.”
Indirect: She said that she was sleepy.

Discourse is also used more to specifically

mean “discussion” as in Descartes’
Discourse or Method.
 DISCOURSE

refers to two ways of speaking that are

bound to physiological, political, professional,
cultural or sociological communities
It is also the way in which the use of
language in a particular domain helps to
constitute the object it refers to.
 RHETORIC
the art of PERSUATION. It has
to do with the presentation of
ideas in clearer, persuasive
language.
The founder of rhetoric is
believed to have been Corax of
Syracuse.
 RHETORIC
According to Aristotelian concept: rhetoric was an
effectively organizing material for presentation of
truth, for an appeal to the intellect.
 It was distinct from poetry, a manner of composition
presenting ideas emotionally.
As Isocrates once noted, “The art of making great
matters small, and small things great”.
 RHETORIC
Along with grammar and logic, rhetoric made up the
TRIVIUM of academic study.

Subdivisions of rhetoric by classical students following

Aristotle‘s lead:
• The“deliberative” (having to do with deliberation of public
action).
• The “forensic” (from forum”- having to do with legal
decisions of guilt and innocence).
• The “epidetic” (having to do with formal praise).
RHETORIC DURING MIDDLE
AGES
rhetoric was continued as a MODERN EDUCATION
serious study through this RETORIC
place in a phase of study in courses in
the trivium, and elaborate composition and persists in
rhetorical systems kept alive debating and oratorical
an contests.
interest in the forms of
expression.
According to Dr. Brock, who was once invited as speaker in
school in Connecticut about writing, Editing is not easy, it is
not fun. It‘s hard and lonely, and the words seldom just
flowed.
• He said rewriting is an essence of writing and that professional
writers rewrite their sentences repeatedly and then write what they
have rewritten.
• Professional writer must establish a daily schedule and stick to it.
• Feeling depressed or unhappy won‘t affect one‘s effective
editing.
 GOOD WRITING
 Good writing has an aliveness that keeps the reader
reading from one paragraph to the next, and it‘s not a
question of gimmick to “personalize” the author.
It‘s question of using the English language in a way that
will achieve the greatest strength and the least clutter.
Can such principles be taught? Maybe not. But most of
them can be learned.
Here are some considerations for good writing:

1. Simplicity
2. Clutter
3. Style
4. The audience
5. Words
6. Usage
7. Forms
8. Unity
 SIMPLICITY

Is the state or quality of being simple. Something easy to

understand or explain seems simple, in contrast to
something complicated.
 In art, Simplicity is Beauty; in writing, simplicity is good writing. We are a society
strangling in unnecessary word, circular constructions, pompous frills and
meaningless jargon. Viscous language of everyday commerce and enterprise like:
business letter, the interoffice memo, the corporation report, the notice from the
bank explaining its latest ”simplified” statement contributes to a cluttered writing.
The jargons from different fields that have to be understood by a specific group of
people using the language like: What member an insurance or medical plan can
decipher the brochure that describes what coasts and benefits are. The pilot who
announces that he is presently anticipating considerable precipitation wouldn‘t
dream saying that it may rain. The sentence is too simple – there must be
something wrong with it.
But the secret of good writing is to strip every sentence to its cleanest
components. Every word that serves no function; every long word that could be a
short word; every adverb that carries the same meaning that‘s already in the verb;
every passive construction that leaves the reader unsure of who is doing what-
there are thousand and one adulterants that weaken the strength of a sentence.
 How can writers achieve
the freedom from clutter?
• Clear out heads with clutter. Clear thinking becomes clear writing; one can
exist without the other. It‘s impossible for a muddy thinker to write good
English.
• Don‘t lead the reader to be an exclusive reader. The reader is someone
with an attention span about of about sixty seconds- a person assailed by
forces competing for the minutes that might otherwise be spent on a
magazine or a book. A person snoozing in a chair holding a magazine or a
book is a person who a being was given too much unnecessary trouble by
the writer.
 • Carelessness of the writers can come in numerous forms. Perhaps a
sentence is so excessively cluttered that the reader, hacking through the
verbiage, simply doesn‘t know what it means. Perhaps a sentence has been
so shoddily constructed the reader could read it in any several ways.
Perhaps the writer has switched pronouns in mid-sentence, or has switched
tense, so the reader loses track of who is talking or when the action took
place. Perhaps Sentence B is not a logical sequel to Sentence A – the writer,
in whose head the connection is clear, hasn‘t bothered to provide the
missing link. Perhaps the writer has used an important word incorrectly by
not taking the trouble to look it up. The writer may think that “Sanguine” and
“Sanquity” mean the same thing but the difference is a bid one. The reader
can only inter ( speaking of big differences) what the writer is trying to imply (
Zinsser, W1990)
 • Writers must constantly ask: what am I trying to say? Surprisingly often
they do not know. They must look at what they have written and ask: have I
said it? Is it clear to someone encountering the subject for the first time? If
it‘s not, that is because some fuzz has worked its way into the machinery.
The clear writer is someone clearheaded enough to see this stuff for what it
is; fuzz.
• Thinking clearly is a conscious act that writers must force upon themselves,
just as if they were embarking on any other project that requires logic;
adding up a laundry list or doing an algebra probe. Good writing doesn‘t
come naturally, though most people obviously think it does.
• Writing is hard work. A clear sentence is no accident.
Very few sentences come out right the first time, or even
the third time. Remember this as a consolation in
moments of despair. If you find writing is hard, it‘s
because it is hard. It‘s one of the hardest things that
people do.
 Persuasive Writing
A persuasive or argument, style to used to
convince the reader of a particular position or
point of view.
The author discusses his or her opinion, in which
often leads to a writing that is biased. Of course,
a strong argument should have a plenty of facts,
data, and reasoning used to convince the reader
too.
The author should focus on:

• ethos (credibility)

• logos (logic of the argument)

• pathos (emotional appeal to

the reader) in order to craft an
effective argument.
 A Persuasive Essay ends with a call to action
to the reader, trying to convince them to side
with author and take appropriate action.

For example, the author could discuss the

benefits of becoming an organ donor. Then, the
conclusion could include a call to action,
encouraging the readers to visit their states organ
donor registry to sign up.
Persuasive
Example:
 The introduction to this persuasive
speech discusses the importance of
refraining from fads diets for more effective
methods.
The author provides statistics and a direct
quote to support his or her ideas of what
those more effective methods should be.
Narrative Writing
A narrative tells a story. It includes:
• Characters
• A plot
• Setting
Narratives
• Dialoguecan be used in fiction or non fiction
writing.
• and action.
Most narratives are told sequentially with beginning,
middle, and end. The author may choose first person
narrative to tell the story from their point of view or the
point of view of one of the characters in the story.
• Narratives are used in novels, short stories, personal
essays, anecdotes, biographies, and oral histories
Narrative Example:
 The following example contains an excerpt from the story.
Notice dialogue, characters, and enfolding plot:
As I cooked bacon and eggs over the stove, fog gathered
along the window. It was a cold winter morning- one of those
mornings when you decide to stay inside. I called to Roger, “
Breakfast is ready! Come get it while its hot” I heard some
rummaging upstairs. Only the promise of a hearty meal could
get him out of bed on a day like this.
Audience
 Who you are writing for.

If you know who you are writing for, you can

make good decisions about what information to
include, as well as your tone and language in
conveying it.
Audience
Is a very generalized group of readers.

Keeping your audience in mind while you write can

help you make good decisions about what material to
include, how to organize your ideas, and how
best to support your argument.
Use the following questions to help you identify your audience and what
You can do to address their wants and needs:
• Who is your audience?
• Might you have more than one audience? If so, how many audiences do
you have? List them.
• Does your assignment itself give any clues about your audience?
• What does your audience need? What do they want? What do they value?
• What is most important to them? What are they least likely to care about?
• What kind of organization would best help your audience understand and
appreciate your argument?
• What do you have to say (or what are you doing in your research) that
might surprise your audience?
• What do you want your audience to think, learn, or assume about you?
• What impression do you want you‘re writing or your research to convey?
Reading your own drafts
Writers tend to read over their own papers pretty quickly, with
the knowledge of what they are trying to argue already in their
minds. Reading in this way can cause you to skip over gaps in
your written argument because the gap-filler is in your head.
Putting yourself in the reader’s position
Instead of reading your draft as if you wrote it and know what
you meant, try reading it as if you have no previous knowledge
of the material. Have you explained enough? Are the
connections clear?
These techniques can help you read your paper in the same
way your reader will and make revisions that help your reader
understand your argument.