Acoustical

Transducers:
Microphones and Loudspeakers
 Transduction means converting
energy from one form to another
 Acoustic transduction generally
means converting sound energy into
an electrical signal, or an electrical
signal into sound
 Microphones and loudspeakers are
acoustic transducers
 Acoustics and Psychoacoustics

Acoustical to
Mechanical to Mechanical to
Acoustical Mechanical
Acoustical Electrical
Propagation
( Nerve Electrical to
( reflection,
Signals ) Psychological
diffraction,
absorption, etc.)
Microphone Principles
 Concepts:
 Since sound is a pressure disturbance, we need a
pressure gauge of some sort
 Since sound exerts a pressure, we can use it to
drive an electrical generator
 Since sound is a wave, we can measure
simultaneously at two (or more) different positions
to figure out the direction the wave is going
Microphone: Diaphragm and
Generating Element
 Diaphragm: a membrane that can be set into motion
by sound waves
 Sensitivity: how much motion from a given sound
intensity
 Generating Element: an electromechanical device that
converts motion of the diaphragm into an electrical
current and voltage
 Sensitivity: how much electrical signal power is
obtained from a given sound intensity
 Microphone: Technical
frequencySpecifications
 Frequency Response: The microphone should have a wide frequency range and flat
response.
 Dimension: The size ( diameter ) of the microphone is to be chosen according to the
highest frequency range of interest and the dynamic range of sound pressure levels (SPLs),
and usually reduces with higher frequency and SPL to be measured. The larger the
microphone the higher the sensitivity.
 Equivalent noise dBn(A): The level of sound pressure required to produce output
voltage corresponding to the inherent noise voltage
 Dynamic Range: The range from dBn to the maximum SPL.
 Sensitivity: in terms of output mV per unit input Pa pressure fluctuation
 Type of polarization: prepolarized / externally polarized
 Directivity: the variation in relative sensitivity of the microphone as a function of the
angle of incidence.
 Stability: a very important feature as to how stable is a microphone in terms of its
sensitivity and frequency response or fluctuations in terms of temperature and humidity,
etc.
 Calibration chart
 Classification of Microphones
 A. General Categories
 a. Passive Microphone (Generator Type) – does not require
external power source
 b. Active Microphone (Amplifier Type) – needs an external
power source for its operation
 B. According to Impedance
 a. High Impedance Microphone – greater than 1000 ohms
b. Low Impedance – 1000 ohms and below
 C. According to Method of Coupling
 a. Pressure Type
 b. Velocity Type
 c. Contact Type
 Classification of Microphones
 D. According to Elements Used
 a. Dynamic
 i. uses the principle of electromagnetic induction
 ii. electromagnetic moving coil microphone
 iii. a medium-priced instrument of high sensitivity
(Faraday’s Law indicates that a voltage is produced)
 Classification of Microphones
 D. According to Elements Used
 b. Ribbon
 i. Velocity microphone
 ii. Ribbon moves as if it is part of the air that experiences
rarefactions and condensations
 Classification of Microphones
 D. According to Elements Used
 c. Capacitor
 i. Condenser type or electrostatic microphone
 Currently the best for ultra sensitivity, low noise, and low distortion
(precision sound level meters use condenser mics • Difficult to
manufacture, delicate, and can be too sensitive for some applications
 Classification of Microphones
 D. According to Elements Used
 d. Crystal ( Piezoelectric Microphone )
 Piezoelectric generating element: certain crystals produce a voltage
when distorted (piezo means “squeeze” in Greek)
 Diaphragm attached to piezo element
 Rugged, reasonably sensitive, not particularly linear

 e. Carbon
 i. Uses principle of variable resistance

 f. Magnetic
 i. Operated on the magnetic reluctance due to the movable core
 Classification of Microphones
 E. According to Directional Characteristics

 a. Unidirectional or Cardioid
 one direction

 b. Bidirectional
 figure of 8; front and back pick-up

 c. Omnidirectional
 all directions
 Characteristics of Microphones
 1. Frequency Response – frequency over which the
microphone will operate normally
 Magnetic 60 – 10,000 Hz
 Crystal 50 – 10,000 Hz
 Condenser 50 – 15,000 Hz
 Carbon 2000 – 3,000 Hz
 2. Sensitivity – ability that would be covered by the
microphone
 3. Dynamic Range – range of sound intensity that
would be covered by the microphone
 Special Types of Microphones
 1. Line Microphone
 capable of picking up sound from a great distance
at an angle of 45 degrees and is highly sensitive

 2. Differential Microphone
 used in noisy places, good up to 3 inches distance
 Microphone Coloration
 Most microphones are not equally sensitive at all
frequencies – The human ear is not equally sensitive at
all frequencies either!
 The frequency (and directional) irregularity of a
microphone is called coloration
 Acoustic Exciters (aka
 Loudspeakers)
Diaphragm attached to a motor element
 Diaphragm motion is proportional to the electrical signal (audio
signal)
 Efficiency: how much acoustical power is produced from a given
amount of input electrical power
 Loudspeakers: Mechanical Challenges
 Large diameter diaphragm can produce more acoustic power,
but has large mass and directional effects
 Diaphragm displacement (in and out) controls sound intensity,
but large displacement causes distortion
 Result: low frequencies require large diameter and large
displacement
 Loudspeakers: Its Enclosure
 Enclosure is a key part of the acoustical
system design
 Sealed box or acoustic suspension – enclosed
air acts like a spring
 Vented box or bass-reflex – enclosed air acts
like a resonator
 Horns and baffles
Loudspeakers: Its Enclosure
 Types of Loudspeakers
 those in which the vibrating surface (diaphragm) radiates
sound directly into the air

1. Dynamic or Moving Coil Loudspeaker – makes use of a

moving coil in a magnetic field and a permanent magnet

2. Electrostatic Loudspeaker – operates on the same principle

as a condenser microphone
 Types of Loudspeakers
 Horn Type
 Those in which a horn is interposed between the diaphragm and
the air
 Used for efficient coupling of sound into the air

 Types:
 Conical Horn

 Parabolic Horn

 Exponential Horn

 Hyperbolic Horn
 Types of Loudspeakers

 To cover the entire range of audible

frequencies, the following speakers are used:
 Woofer – for low frequencies
 Tweeter – for high frequencies
 Midrange – for normal range
 Loudspeaker Phasing

 When more than one speaker is used:

 Phasing must be uniform
 Polarities and voice coils are in phase such
that the cone of all speakers move inwards at
the same instant.
 Other Loudspeaker Issues
 Multi-way loudspeakers: separate driver
elements optimized for low, mid, and high
frequencies (woofer, squawker, tweeter)
 Horns: improve acoustical coupling between
driver and the air
 Transmission line enclosures
 Electrostatic driver elements
 ‘Powered’ speakers
 Source:

http://www.montana.edu/rmaher/ee417/transducer
_tutorial.pdf