5672023

CHAPTER 14
Wall Systems
Objectives
• Describe different types of masonry wall
systems.
• Explain the use of ties, flashing, weep
holes, lintels, sills, jambs, and expansion
joints in masonry wall systems.
• Explain the effects of moisture
condensation in masonry walls and the
methods used to resist condensation.
Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.
Objectives (Cont.)
• Describe construction procedures for
thin brick veneer, including thin bed set,
thick bed set, and precast panels.
• Explain the design, function, and
construction of arches.
• Describe the joints used for movement in
masonry.
• Understand the function of caps and
copings.
• Install a retaining wall.
Masonry Walls
• Single-wythe or multiple-wythe
• Reinforced or unreinforced
• Provide excellent structural performance
• Easily maintained and attractive
• Energy efficient due to high thermal mass
Energy Codes
• Most energy codes specify U-values

– Heat flow through a building product based on
difference between external and internal
temperatures
– R-value is thermal resistance of heat loss
through a building product
– R = 1/U
Solid Masonry Walls
• Loadbearing or nonloadbearing
6″ Masonry Walls with SCR brick
• SCR brick
• Nominal thickness of
2 2/3″ produces 16″
in six courses
• Nominal 6″ wide and
12″ long
Four-Inch RBM Curtain and Panel
Walls
• Exterior nonloadbearing walls
• Curtain walls
– Not wholly supported at each story
• Panel walls
– Supported at each story and self-supporting
between stories
• Both types must be able to resist lateral
forces
Design of Four-Inch Walls
• Partially reinforced
• Ladder- or truss-type
reinforcement
• Drainage space on
inside of wall
• Expansion joints
Brick Industry Association

Hollow Masonry Walls
• Walls built using solid or hollow masonry

units
• Separated to form inner and outer wall
• Two types
– Cavity walls
– Masonry bonded walls
Cavity Walls
• Widely used in low-

and high-rise
buildings
• Superior rain
penetration
resistance, thermal
capabilities, sound
transmission, and
fire resistance
• Continuous air
space
2″ to 3″ wide
Construction of Cavity Walls
• Exterior wythe
– Usually a nominal 4″ thick
– Solid or hollow brick
• Interior wythe
– 4″, 6″, or 8″ thick
– Brick, structural clay tile, or hollow or solid
concrete masonry units
Cavity
• Air space has insulation value and can be

filled with insulation material for added
reduction of heat transfer
• Acts as a barrier to moisture
• Must be kept free of mortar droppings
Weep Holes
• Required at bottom
of cavity wall
• Mortar opening
creates void for
moisture inside wall
cavity to exit
• Located immediately
above flashing
Flashing
• Thin, impervious
material
• Usually made of
metal
• Keeps any moisture
that might collect in
cavity away from
inner wall
Portland Cement Association
Insulation
• Rigid boards
installed horizontally
within air space
against cavity face
of backup wythe
• Granular fill is
usually poured
directly into cavity
from bag or from
hopper

Bonding
• Adjacent wythes tied together with

corrosion-resistant 3/16″ diameter steel or
metal ties
• Ties in alternate courses should be
staggered
• End of ties should be bent to 90° angles
• Additional ties needed at openings
Flashing
• Diverts moisture out of cavity through weep

holes
• Continuous flashing at bottom of cavity and
wherever cavity is interrupted
• Over unprotected wall openings
• At window sills, parapet walls, and spandrels
Weep Holes
• Must be provided wherever flashing is used

• Located in joints of outer wythe immediately
above flashing
• Spacing is approximately 2′ O.C maximum
– Weep holes using wick material should be 16″
O.C. maximum
Expansion Joints
• Movement of outer brick wythe is greater

than that in solid or composite walls
• Expansion joints are recommended through
outer wythe on each side of external corner
where walls are 50′ or more in length
Hollow Masonry Bonded Walls
• Used as foundation
and exterior
loadbearing walls
• Not resistant to high
moisture
Anchored Veneered Walls
• Brick and stone

masonry facing
veneer
• Veneer is attached,
but not bonded to,
backing
• Veneer does not act
structurally with
rest of wall
Anchored Brick Veneer
Construction
• Nominal 3″ or 4″ thick exterior brick wythe is
anchored to backing system with metal ties
• Clear air space between veneer and backing
• Wood frame, steel frame, concrete, or
masonry backing system
• Facing of masonry units or other weather-
resisting, noncombustible materials
Moisture Resistance
• Brick veneer wall assemblies are drainage-

type walls that resist rain penetration
• Flashing and weep holes work with air space
to resist moisture penetration
• Brick veneer with wood or metal frame
backing is usually built with minimum 1″ air
space
Brick Veneer Foundations
• Brick veneer on frame backing transfers

weight of veneer to foundation
• Foundation brick ledge supporting brick
veneer should be at least equal to total
thickness of wall assembly
• Foundations must extend beneath frost line
Masonry Wall Ties
• Noncorrosive metal
ties
– One tie for every 2 2/3
sq ft of wall area
– Maximum spacing of
24″ O.C. in either
direction
• Nail must be located
within 5/8″ of bend in
tie

Wire Ties
• Must be embedded at least 5/8″ into bed

joint from air space
• At least 5/8″ cover of mortar to exposed face
• Corrugated ties must penetrate to at least
half the veneer thickness and have at least
5/8″ mortar cover
Flashing and Weep Holes
• Position above grade • Weep hole spacing

– As close as possible – No more than 24″ O.C.
to bottom of wall for holes in which
– As close as possible mortar has been
above openings and completely removed
below sills – Maximum of 16″ O.C.
• Weep holes should for holes with wicking
material
be in head joints
directly above
flashing
Lintels
• Brick veneer backed • Lintel materials

by wood or metal – Loose steel
frame must be – Stone
supported by lintels – Precast
over openings – Concrete
– Cast stone
– Reinforced brick
Expansion Joints
• May be needed to allow for horizontal

movement
• Required in brick veneer when there are
– Long walls
– Walls with returns
– Large openings
Composite Walls
• Two walls bonded

together with
masonry or wire ties
• Vertical collar joint
(narrow space
between facing and
backup units)
prevents passage of
water
Building an 8″ Composite Wall
• First course of facing may be either headers

or stretchers
• All facing courses are laid in a full mortar
bed with head joints completely filled
• Facing headers are laid every seventh
course
• Mortar extruded on backside should be cut
flush with trowel before it hardens
Building an 8″ Composite Wall
(Cont.)
• Wythes can be bonded across collar joint by
parging backside of facing
Portland Cement Association

12″ Composite Wall
• Facing header
course is laid
overlapping the
header block
• Header block can be
laid with recessed
notch up or down
Resisting Moisture Condensation
• Water affects many building materials

• Condensation can be decreased through
ventilation or dehumidification
• Mechanical devices and heat exchangers
remove moisture-laden air
Reinforced Masonry Walls
• Steel reinforcement
embedded in
masonry units
• Structurally bonded
by grout core
– Grouting techniques
vary
• Full bed joints are
used
Reinforcing Masonry Walls
• Maximum spacing of
principal
reinforcement
should not exceed
48″
• Primary use of steel
reinforcement is in
vertical members,
lintels, and bond
beams
Retaining Walls
• Reinforced masonry
• Two common
designs
– Gravity
– Cantilever
Cantilever-Type
Grouted Masonry Walls
• Single- or multi-wythe
• Similar to reinforced masonry walls but
without reinforcements
• Grout is added to core in loadbearing
masonry walls to provide added strength
• Other uses include filling bond beams and
collar joint in two-wythe walls
Thin Brick Veneer
• Thin brick units approximately 1/2″ to 1″

thick
• Give appearance of conventional brick wall
• Most common face size has nominal
dimensions of
2 2/3″ × 8″
• Adhered veneer
Thin Brick Veneer Classifications
• Thin bed set
Thin Brick Veneer Classifications
(Cont.)
• Thick bed set
Thin Brick Faced Precast Panels
• Forming table • Constructed indoors

creates size and and delivered to site
shape of wall panel
• Thin brick composes
exterior face of
panel, becomes
bonded and
embedded into panel
when concrete mix
is poured into form
Gage Brothers in Sioux Falls, SD
Chases and Recesses
• Horizontal or vertical spaces for plumbing,

heating ducts, electrical wiring, etc.
• Chases are located inside of wall and are
from 4″ to 12″ in width
• Recesses are limited to 1/3 of wall thickness
Lintels
• Structural member placed wall opening to

support loads above
– Steel lintels should be supported on either
side of opening for at least 4″
– Reinforced concrete lintels should have a
minimum bearing of at least 8″ at each end
– Longer lintels should have greater bearing
surfaces at ends
Types of Lintels
Detailed Brick Masonry Lintel
• Brick masonry lintel with stirrups
Movement at Lintels
• Slight movement occurs at location of lintels

• Control joints are often located at ends
• Noncorroding metal plate is placed under
ends where control joints occur to prevent
uncontrolled cracking
• Full bed of mortar should be used over plate
Arches
• Masonry units span an opening by

transferring vertical loads laterally to
adjacent masonry units, and thus to
abutments
Arch Terminology
Arch Classifications
• Arches are normally classified by:

– Curve of intrados
– Function, shape, style
• Arches are also classified as major and
minor
Types of Arches

Types of Arches (Cont.)

Function of Arches
• Compression
stresses are
distributed through
arch
• Weight is diverted to
abutments
• Some may require
steel reinforcements

Arch Design
• Odd number of units are used so keystone

falls at center of crown
• Arch voussoirs are usually in radial
orientation
• Different shapes and sizes of brick selected
based on arch type, dimension, and desired
appearance
Arch Spans
• Short spans • Larger spans

– Tapered brick is – Requires less taper of
recommended to the voussoirs
avoid wide mortar – Formed with
joints at extrados rectangular brick and
tapered mortar joints
– Mortar joint should be
between 1/8″ and 3/4″
Arch Depth
• Dimension of arch at skewback that is

perpendicular to arch axis, except in jack
arches
• Depends on size and orientation of brick
used
• Usually a multiple of the brick’s width
• Arch depth should increase with increasing
arch span
Brick Masonry Arch Construction
• Two methods
– Special shapes and uniform joint thickness
– Units of uniform thickness with varying joint
thickness
• All mortar joints must be completely filled
Centering for Arches
• Temporary shoring
supports masonry
• Centering is usually
made from wood
Jack Arch Construction
• Supported by steel if
opening is over 2′
wide
• Steel must be bent
to the camber
• Each joint should be
same width as entire
length of joint
• End joints are
horizontal to radius
of arch
Segmental Arch Construction
• Number of courses
is determined by
length of extrados
• Size of brick is
determined by
length of intrados
• Rise should be 1/6,
1/8, 1/10, or 1/12 of
span
Window and Door Details
• Details are
necessary for mason
to plan ahead
• Relationships
between head,
jambs, and sill to
masonry wall

Sills
• Channel water away

from a building
• Single or multiple
units
• Built in place or
prefabricated
• Made of cut stone,
brick, concrete, or
metal
Joints for Movement in Masonry
• Volume changes in • Types

masonry material – Expansion joints
result in movement – Control joints
• Joints allow for – Building expansion
joints
movement to occur
– Construction joints
and to prevent
cracks
Expansion Joints
• Separate brick • Located so as not to

masonry into compromise
segments structural integrity
• Prevent cracking
due to changes in
temperature,
moisture expansion,
elastic deformation,
and creep
• Horizontal or
vertical

Control Joint
• Creates a plane of weakness in concrete

masonry to control location of cracks
• Vertical opening through concrete masonry
wythe
• Must be located so structural integrity of
concrete masonry is not affected
Building Expansion (Isolation)
Joint
• Divides building into separate sections so
stresses developed in one section do not
affect integrity of remainder of structure
• Through-the-building joint allows adjoining
parts of building to move freely from one
another
Construction (Cold) Joint
• Used where masonry work is interrupted

• Mason terminates work at a vertical plane
and then continues laying brick until that
section of wall is complete
• Next section of wall begins at construction
joint
• Located where least likely to impair strength
Bond Breaks
• Prevent cracks due to differences in

expansion and contraction rates of materials
• Building paper or flashing separate two
surfaces of masonry material
• Used between floor slabs and foundations
• Allow each element to move somewhat
independently while providing support
Brick Masonry Soffits
• Enclose a building
• Provide attractive appearance
• Large soffits requires expensive forming
and shoring
• Brick masonry soffit may be more
efficient for small soffit area
• Usually reinforced and grouted
Stone Quoins
• Large square stones • Height is odd

used at corners and number of brick
around openings of courses
building for • Length is equal to
ornamental one or more units
purposes used in wall
Garden Walls
• Freestanding structures
– Straight walls
– Pier and panel walls
– Serpentine walls
• Can be perforated
Straight Walls
• Masonry texture and color give character

• Thickness provides lateral stability against
wind and impact loads
• Different copings
Pier and Panel Walls
• Series of relatively thin panels 4′ thick,

braced by masonry piers
• Easy to build and economical
• Ideal for uneven terrain
• Foundations are required only for piers
Serpentine Walls
• Serpentine shape
provides lateral
strength so wall can
be built 4″ thick
• Radius of curvature
no more than twice
height above grade
• Depth no less than
1/2 of height
Caps and Copings
• Channel water away from building

– Cap is covering within height of wall
– Coping is covering at top of wall
• Single or multiple units
• Tops slope in one direction or both
directions
• Made of brick, precast or cast-in-place
concrete, stone, metal, or terra cotta
Corbels
• Shelf or ledge formed by projecting

successive courses of masonry out from
face of wall
• Used to achieve a particular appearance or
to provide structural support
• Horizontal projection should not exceed 1/2
thickness of wall or veneer
• Projection of single course should not
exceed 1/2 of unit height or 1/3 of unit bed
depth
Racking
• Masonry in which successive courses are

stepped back from face of wall
• When racking back to achieve desired
dimensions, make sure cores of units are not
exposed
Segmental Retaining Walls (SRW)
and Hardscape
• Constructed of high-
strength concrete
blocks or units made
for dry stacking
• SRW blocks are used
to build retaining
walls
• Hardscape is
intended for
decorative purposes
Anchor Wall Systems, Inc.

Retaining Wall Products
• Some have locking

lip on lower back
edge
• Prevent forward
movement exerted
by earth pressures
• Straight and beveled
front units with
uniform or tapered
widths
Retaining Wall Installation
• Prior to
construction,
prepare a layout
plan that considers
topography, drainage
patterns, soil
conditions, and local
code restrictions

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CHAPTER 14

• Most energy codes specify U-values

Brick Industry Association

• Walls built using solid or hollow masonry

• Widely used in low-

• Air space has insulation value and can be

Portland Cement Association

Brick Industry Association

• Adjacent wythes tied together with

• Diverts moisture out of cavity through weep

• Must be provided wherever flashing is used

• Movement of outer brick wythe is greater

• Brick and stone

• Brick veneer wall assemblies are drainage-

• Brick veneer on frame backing transfers

Brick Industry Association

• Must be embedded at least 5/8″ into bed

• Position above grade • Weep hole spacing

• Brick veneer backed • Lintel materials

• May be needed to allow for horizontal

• Two walls bonded

• First course of facing may be either headers

Portland Cement Association

• Water affects many building materials

• Thin brick units approximately 1/2″ to 1″

• Thin bed set

Brick Industry Association

Brick Industry Association

• Forming table • Constructed indoors

Gage Brothers in Sioux Falls, SD

• Horizontal or vertical spaces for plumbing,

• Structural member placed wall opening to

• Brick masonry lintel with stirrups

Brick Industry Association

• Slight movement occurs at location of lintels

• Masonry units span an opening by

• Arches are normally classified by:

Brick Industry Association

Brick Industry Association

Brick Industry Association

• Odd number of units are used so keystone

• Short spans • Larger spans

• Dimension of arch at skewback that is

Brick Industry Association

• Channel water away

• Volume changes in • Types

• Separate brick • Located so as not to

Brick Industry Association

• Creates a plane of weakness in concrete

• Used where masonry work is interrupted

• Prevent cracks due to differences in

• Large square stones • Height is odd

• Masonry texture and color give character

• Series of relatively thin panels 4′ thick,

• Channel water away from building

• Shelf or ledge formed by projecting

• Masonry in which successive courses are

Anchor Wall Systems, Inc.

• Some have locking

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