Landing and Takeoff

TAKEOFF

 it is the phase of flight in which

an aerospace vehicle goes from the ground to
flying in the air.
 LANDING

 is the last part of a flight, where a flying aircraft, or

spacecraft returns to the ground. When the flying
object returns to water, the process is called alighting,
although it is commonly called "landing", "touchdown" or
"splashdown" as well.
 VERTICAL TAKEOFF AND LANDING
(VTOL)

A flight technique in which an aircraft rises

directly into the air and settles vertically onto
the ground. Such aircraft do not need runways
but can operate from a small pad or, in some
cases, from an unprepared site.
 HELICOPTER

 was the first aircraft

that could hover and
take off and land
vertically, and is now
the most widely used
VTOL concept.
Instrument Landing
System
Instrument Landing System

 An Instrument Landing System (ILS) is a highly accurate radio

signal navigation aid consisting of two antennas which transmit
signals to receivers in the aircraft cockpit—a glide path tower
located next to the runway at the northern end and a localizer
antenna at the southern end.
 An Instrument Landing System is a precision runway
approach aid employing two radio beams to provide pilots with
vertical and horizontal guidance during the landing approach.
Instrumental
Landing System
An instrument landing system
operates as a ground-based
instrument approach system
that provides precision lateral
and vertical guidance to an
aircraft approaching and
landing on a runway. It uses a
combination of radio signals
(VHF-UHF) and, in many cases,
high-intensity lighting arrays to
enable a safe landing.
Instrument Landing System
Components
Description

 The localiser (LOC)provides azimuth guidance, while the

glideslope (GS) defines the correct vertical descent
profile. Marker beacons and high intensity runways
lights may also be provided as aids to the use of an ILS,
although the former are more likely nowadays to have
been replaced by a DME integral to the ILS or one
otherwise located on the aerodrome, for example with
a VOR.
Localiser
• The ILS LOC aerials are normally
located at the end of the runway;
they transmit two narrow
intersecting beams, one slightly to
the right of the runway
centerline, the other slightly to
the left which, where they
intersect
• The localizer transmits two
beams, one on the right side of
the runway center line (150 Hz
modulation) and one on the left
die of the runway center line (90
Hz modulation).
Glideslope
• The ILS GS aerials are normally
located on the aerodrome;
they transmit two narrow
intersecting beams, one
slightly below the required
vertical profile and the other
slightly above it which, where
they intersect
• The glide path has an angle of
approximately 3 degrees The
upper glide slope beam has a
lobe that is modulated with a
90 Hz signal, while the lower
lobe is modulated at 150 Hz.
Marker Beacon
For the purpose of discontinuous addition of navigation data with the value of a
momentary distance from the aircraft to the runway’s threshold, the following
marker beacons are used
If marker beacons are provided, they will be located on the ILS approach track
at notified distances from touch-down
the first marker beacon (the Outer Marker) would be located about 5 NM from
touch-down while the second marker beacon (the Middle Marker) would be
located about 1 NM from touch-down.
Outer Marker

 The outer marker is located 3,5÷6 NM (5.556÷11.112 km) from the runway’s
threshold. Its beam intersects the glide slope’s ray at an altitude of
approximately 1400 ft (426.72 m) above the runway. It also roughly marks the
point at which an aircraft enters the glide slope under normal circumstances,
and represents the beginning of the final part of the landing approach.
Middle Marker

 The middle marker is used to mark the point of transition from an approach
by instruments to a visual one. It’s located about 0,5÷0,8 NM (926÷1482 m)
from the runway’s threshold. When flying over it, the aircraft is at an altitude
of 200÷250 ft (60,96÷76,2) above it. The audio signal is made up of two
dashes or six dots per second. The frequency of the identification tone is 1300
Hz. Passing over the middle marker is visually indicated by a bulb of an amber
(yellow) colour .
Inner Marker (IM)

 The inner marker emits an AM wave with a modulated frequency of 3000 Hz.
The identification signal has a pattern of series of dots, in frequency of six
dots per second. The beacon is located 60m in front of the runway’s
threshold. The inner marker has to be used for systems of the II. and III.
category.
Categories
 An approach may not normally be
continued unless the runway visual
range (RVR) is above the specified
minimum. When an approach is
flown, the pilot follows the ILS
guidance until the decision
height (DH) is reached. At the DH,
the approach may only be
continued if the specified visual
reference is available, otherwise,
a go-around must be flown.
 Category I standard of 200 feet above
runway threshold elevation (arte)
 Category II permits a DH of not lower
than 100 ft and an RVR not less than
300 m;
 Category IIIA permits a DH below 100
ft and an RVR not below 200 m;
 Category IIIB permits a DH below 50
ft and an RVR not less than 50 m;
 Category IIIC is a full auto-land with
roll out guidance along the runway
centreline and no DH or RVR
limitations apply.
Transponder Landing
System
Introduction

 Transponder Landing System (TLS) tracks and provides

valid landing and approach guidance to only one
individual aircraft returning a specific transponder
identification code. TLS guidance signals emulate an
Instrument Landing System (ILS)signals that would exist
at the current position of the tracked aircraft. Another
aircraft not being tracked that tunes the TLS localizer
and glide slope channel will receive the guidance
intended for the target aircraft, not valid guidance for
its position in the airspace.
 The TLS determines the location of the aircraft by
interrogating the aircraft transponder and then
measuring the transponder range, azimuth angle, and
elevation angle with two sensors located adjacent to
the runway. Localizer and glide slope corrections are
then computed as necessary to guide the aircraft to the
desired course. This guidance information is transmitted
throughout the TLS service volume using Very High
Frequency (VHF) localizer and Ultra High Frequency
 (UHF) glide slope signals modulated with 90 and 150 Hz
tones. The TLS guidance signals are dynamic in that
they change with time as the tracked aircraft moves.
Basic TLS Operation

 Operational sequence for providing guidance to landing

aircraft is as follows. An aircraft operating under Air
Traffic Control (ATC) Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)
procedures has an assigned transponder identification
code. When the aircraft comes within 60nm and is
within line-of-sight, the TLS uses transponder multi-
lateration to display a track symbol corresponding to
the aircraft location on the TLS Remote Control Unit
(RCU) console.
 The RCU is normally located at the control tower and is used to
input the assigned transponder code for an aircraft intending to
make an approach. Once activated by inputting the assigned
transponder code, TLS will search the service volume for the
code. The TLS transmits an interrogation signal which
commands all transponders in the TLS service volume to reply.
Simultaneously, as the interrogation signal is broadcast, a “start
pulse” signal is sent to the TLS sensors to begin a data
collection cycle. For a period following the start pulse, the
sensors store the transponder pulse returns from all aircraft
located within the service volume along with carrier signal
measurements that allow angles to be computed. This
interrogation and search cycle is repeated multiple times per
second. Interrogator Side Lobe Suppression (SLS) is used to
block replies from outside the service volume.
TLS Components

 The Azimuth Sensor Array (ASA)

 The Elevation Sensor Array (ESA)
 The Alternate Time of Arrival (ATA)
 The Calibration/Built-in-Test
(Cal/BIT)
 The Base Station containing
primary electronics rack and an
optional reserve electronics rack.
 The Ethernet network, including
fiber-optic cabling
 The Remote Control Unit (RCU)
TLS Operation Sequence

 When the assigned aircraft enters the service volume, its transponder receives the
interrogation signal.
 The aircraft transponder replies with its preset identification code.
 TLS sensors receive this preset identification code.
 The azimuth sensor array (ASA) and the elevation sensor array (ESA) measure the
time difference between the start pulse and aircraft transponder reply to compute
the time-of-arrival and the phase angle. This data is sent to the TLS Base Station.
 The Base Station calculates aircraft location from ASA and ESA data.
 The calculated aircraft location is used to guide the aircraft on the desired path
and course by Glide Slope and Localizer signal modulation.
 The modulation of the Glide Slope and Localizer carrier signals is used to display
path and course guidance on the CDI.
Advantages
 It can offer precision approach guidance over terrain that prohibits “image,”
“capture effect,” and “End-Fire”-type ILS glide slope equipment. Basic image ILS,
which uses ground reflection of the RF transmission as an integral component of
the glide scope signal, is limited by terrain under the approach path. Capture
effect ILS attempts to improve performance at sites with rough terrain within a
few thousand feet of the equipment. The End-Fire ILS from Watts Antenna Co.,
Herndon, Va., also aims to provide ILS signals by placing the transmit array closer
to the runway, where the grading of the ground tends to be smoother.
 TLS provides accurate precision approach guidance over terrain that would cause
unacceptable errors to the signal produced by ILS glide scope equipment.
 TLS reduces installation cost by avoiding expensive ground conditioning that
usually required to install an ILS.
 Since TLS, by contrast, tracks the aircraft and generates the approach guidance
through a simple trigonometric projection, the TLS can be located hundreds of
feet from desired runway centerline.
Disadvantages

 Since the TLS simulates an ILS signal that is specific to

one aircraft’s location, only one aircraft at a time may
be cleared for the TLS landing approach. Any other
aircraft in the area will receive same guidance
regardless their location relative to the approach and
must wait to be cleared by ATC. The transponder code
for the cleared aircraft is selected at the remote
control unit.
Microwave Landing
System (MLS)
ILS vs MLS
MLS Coverage
Approach Coverage Volume
Typically MLS Flight Deck
Control Panel
MLS Components
Principle of Operation

 The MLS system operates at a frequency band of 5031.0

– 5090.7 MHz on two separate channels at a mutual
interval of 300 kHz
 The protractor part of the MLS system provides
continually information about an aircraft’s position
relative to the runway both in the vertical and
horizontal plane.
 The rangefinder part enables to measure the distance
between an aircraft and the reference points in the
approach process.
 Time referenced scanning beam (TRSB) is utilized in azimuth
and elevation as follows:
 the aircraft computes its azimuth position in relation to the
runway center-line by measuring the time interval in
microseconds between the reception the ‘to’ and ‘fro’ scanning
beams.
 The beam starts the ‘to’ sweep at one extremity of its total
scan and travels at a uniform speed to the other extremity. It
then starts its ‘fro’ scan back to its start position.
 Another beam scans up and down at a uniform speed within its
elevation limits. The aircraft’s position in relation to its
selected glideslope angle is thus calculated in the same manner
by measuring the time difference between the reception of the
pulses from the up and down sweep.
TRSB Scanning Process