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1. CEMENT PLASTERING
• Before applying the second coat, the first coat is allowed to set
but it would not become dry and it is also roughened with a
scratching tool to provide key to the second coat.
• It is about 3 to 6 mm in thickness.
• Suitability
• Suitability
• Suitability
• Suitability
• The joint on the face of stone or brick masonry are roughly filled
in while the walls are being raised.
• They are after wards neatly finished off to make them water
tight.
3. Recessed pointing
4. V-pointing
5. Weather pointing
• In this case, the joints are first filled up flush, and then
a circular piece of steel or iron is pressed in and rubbed
in the middle of joints.
• The magnitude of these changes varies with the type of material used.
• To overcome this problem, the large and multi-storied buildings may either
be constructed monolithically with heavy reinforcement to link each of their
component parts or they may be provided with a number of joints
• Joints are usually provided in large or multistoried buildings. But joints should
not be provided in shell structures and certain other rigid structures where
provision of joints interferes with the rigidity of structure.
TYPES OF JOINTS
1- CONTRACTION JOINTS
1 Walls:
(a)Load bearing walls with cross walls at 30 m intervals.
intervals. Traditional type of one-brick
thick or more.
Frames :
4 Joints in structure through slabs, Corners of L, T, H and V shaped
beams, columns etc, dividing the structures at 30 m intervals in
building into two independent long uniform structures.
structural units.
• The doors with one shutter are known as single leafed doors.
Such doors are used for small openings.
• Bottom rail:- The lower most horizontal piece or member of the frame-
work of a shutter is known as bottom rail.
• Jambs:- The vertical faces of a door or window opening which support the
frame of a door or window are called jambs.
• Sash bars:- The light members of the frame-work which carry the glass
panes within a shutter or frame work are known as sash bars.
IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS (-ctd-)
• The hold fasts are made from 3.7 cm x 0.6 cm flat, bent at both ends One end
of each hold fast is fixed on the side of the door frame and its other end is
built into the masonry.
• The horns provided at the head and sill or in between, are also built into the
walls.
• Before fixing a door frame, its sides coming in contact with masonry, are
painted with two coats of a wooden-preservative (generally coal tar). The
other sides of the frame are generally given a priming coat.
TYPES OF DOORS
1. Ledged and battened doors
• These are the simplest type of doors.
• They consist of two stiles, three rails and two braces forming the frame-work
of each leaf (shutter) to which he battens are fixed.
• The top and bottom rails and the stiles have full thickness while the middle
(lock) rail and braces are thinner in section to allow the battens to pass over
them and finish flush with the top and bottom rails.
• The battens should butt into the rebate in the top and bottom rails.
• They are made in different designs but their principle for construction is same
as in other doors.
• The space between them is filed with panels. The vertical styles are
continuous from top to bottom and rails are jointed to the styles.
• On inside of the styles and rails, grooves are made to receive the panels
which may be of raised or flush type.
• These doors are mostly used in residential and other buildings as internal
and external doors.
5. Paneled and glazed doors
• The construction of this type of door is similar to a framed and paneled door
but in such doors glass panes are fixed.
• In these doors, instead of wooden panels in their top portions, sash bars to
receive the glass panes are used.
• Sash bars are equal in thickness to the full thickness of the shutter, with 2.5
cm with and having 1 to 3 cm rebate according to the size of the doors.
• The size of the rebate is generally 1.6 cm x 0.6 cm. Each glass pane is secured
in position by small nails and is bedded with the help of lime-putty.
• It may be either 1/3rd glazed at top and2/3 paneled at bottom, or 2/3 glazed
at top or 1/3 panelled at bottom.
• These doors are mostly used in public buildings, hospitals, colleges, offices
and also in residential buildings.
5- Panelled and glazed Door.
6. Flush doors
• These doors are made with plywood and give better appearance.
• They are solid and semi-solid door and are constructed and finished in many
ways.
• The inner core is either framed or laminated. The later makes a more solid
and lasting door.
• With the production of plywood in large quantities, flush doors are becoming
more and more popular these days.
• These doors allow free passage of light air and secure privacy
and safety. But they collect dust easily and are difficult to clean.
• They are also used in hill stations to prevent strong wind blowing
inside the building directly.
9- Sliding Doors
• These doors consist of single or double steel
or wooden shutters.
• Flat iron pieces are used cross wise and are fixed to vertical flat
iron pieces at 12 to 15 cm centre to centre so as to form
parallelograms. When pushed, the parallelograms get collapsed.
• These doors allow free passage of the air and light and at the
same time do not allow entrance of flies and mosquitoes inside
the rooms of a building.
1- INITIAL COST
• The cost of floor covering is the most important thing.
• The expensive types of floor coverings are marble and
teerrazzo (chips).
• Tiles and asphalt are less expensive whereas concrete and
brick are the cheapest and are commonly used.
2- APPEARANCE
• Co lour, texture and architectural beauty are the factors taken
into consideration.
FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF FLOORS
( -CTD- )
3- DURABILITY
• Resistance to wear and tear is an important factor for a floor covering.
• Resistance to temperature changes, humidity, disintegration and decay
has alsoto be taken into account.
• Tiles, marble and concrete floor covering offer good resistance to these
factors. Wherever heavy floor traffic is not anticipated bricks and wood
blocks can be used.
5- DAMPNESS
• Moisture should not penetrate in the floor.
• They should be completely water tight.
• Wood, Rubber are not suitable in damp places,
whereas tiles, bricks, concrete and Terrazzo is
suitable for use on flooring which are subjected to
dampness.
6- INDENTATIOIN
• Marks, depression due to furniture legs or ladies
shoes should not make any impression on the floor.
FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF FLOORS
( -CTD- )
7- NOISELESSNESS
• This is not an important factor for ground floor constructions,
but it should be noiseless when traveled over.
• Rubber coverings and cork covering are most suitable.
8- MAINTENANCE
• For keeping floor in perfect condition it is necessary to clean,
repair and apply any other treatment from time to time.
• Marble and concrete floors require less repair whereas wood
blocks, need frequent maintenance.
• Concrete surfaces can not be repaired easily while tiles can
be replaced quickly.
CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS
1- BRICK FLOORING
• Brick flooring is commonly used.
• The filling over which this floor is to be laid should be well compacted.
• The level of the flooring being known, the filling is excavated the desired
depth.
• Generally two types of beds are provided.
• In the first type, after excavation the surface is leveled and a layer of 3//
sand is spread over which a course of bricks is laid.
• In the second type, a lean cement concrete (P.C.C), one part of cement, 6
parts of sand and 18 parts of aggregates of 10 to15 cms in thickness is laid
on the compacted bed.
• Flat brick flooring is laid into1:6 C/S mortar over a bed of ¾ // thick
cement sand mortar.
• Bricks on edge flooring are laid into1:6 C/S mortar over a bed of ¾ // thick
C/S mortar.
CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS ( -CTD- )
2- CEMENT CONCRETE FLOORING
• This type of floors are most commonly used both in
residential and commercial buildings.
• The two components of a concrete floor are Base &
Wearing surface (top surface).
• The flooring can be constructed either monolithic or
non-monolithic.
• In monolithic floors, a base layer is laid and then
immediately a concrete topping is provided and in
non-monolithic the topping is laid after the base has
set.
CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS ( -CTD- )
DISADVATAGES OF MONOLITHIC FLOORS
• The topping is likely to get damaged due to
subsequent building operations.
• It is likely to develop hair-like cracks on account of
small settlements which may occur in the base course
immediately after it is laid.
• When the surface of the topping gets damaged, it is
very difficult to repair it.
• The progress is slow since the topping can be laid
only after the base course has sufficiently set to allow
the workmen to lay the top layer.
CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS ( -CTD- )
5. GLASS FLOOR
• Glass floors are used wherever it is desired to admit light into
the basements through the upper floor.
• The glass blocks are fitted within the frames of various
thicknesses to transmit light at an angle to the farther areas in
a room.
• Structural glass is available in the from of tiles or slabs and its
thickness ranges from 12 to 30 millimeters.
• The framework is spaced closed apart so the glass can
withstand loads coming over it. Glass flooring is not commonly
used.
CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS ( -CTD- )
6. ASPHALT FLOORING
• Asphalt mastic is a mixture of fine aggregates (sand), natural or
artificial asphalt and coarse aggregates.
• It can be mixed hot and laid in continuous sheets or pressed into
blocks which can be used as flooring.
• It can also be mixed with a mineral oil and asbestos and applied
cold.
• While heating, the asphalt is stirred thoroughly so that the layer
at the bottom may not get burnt, when the whole quantity is
fused, sand or aggregates equal to twice the volume of asphalt is
added gently and mixed thoroughly. This mixture is then ready for
laying.
CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS ( -CTD- )
7. WOODEN FLOORING
• This type of floor construction is not
extensively used but is popular for special
purpose floors, e.g. in auditorium, hospitals.
• Wooden flooring should have a concrete base
or should rest on joists spanning across walls
which are constructed at suitable interval.
• For the fixing of wooden floors on concrete
slabs, longitudinal railing strips are provided.
ROOFS
• A roof usually consists of frame work provided with a suitable covering at its
top.
(Sloping roofs are suitable for the area where rainfall and
snowfall are heavy, whereas, flat roofs are suitable for the area
where rainfall is meager i.e. of low intensity, and there is no
snowfall)
• Shelled roofs
• Domes
TYPES OF SLOPING ROOFS
Eaves:- The lowest edges of the surfaces of a sloping roof are called
eaves.
Eave’s board:- A wooden board fixed along the eaves at the end of
common rafters is known as eaves board or facia board.
Gutter is usually supported at eaves board.
IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS (-ctd-)
Rafters:- The members which support the covering material of a
sloping roof are called rafters.
Hip rafter:- The rafter lying along the hip in a sloping roof is
termed as hip rafter.
Valley rafter:- The rafter lying along the valley in a pitched roof is
known as valley rafter.
IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS (-ctd-)
Jack rafter:- The short common rafters which run from a hip rafter
to the eave of a sloping roof are called jack rafters.
Cleats:- The pieces of timber or angle-iron which are nailed or screwed (for
timber), riveted or welded (for angle-iron) on the trusses, to support the
purlins are known as cleats.
Battens:- The pieces of wood which are directly nailed to the common rafters
are called battens. The roof coverings are directly laid over battens.
Pitch:- The inclination of the side of a slopping roof to the horizontal surface is
called pitch of the roof. It is usually expressed as the ratio of the rise to the
span or in degrees.
Tread:- The horizontal top surface of a step on which foot is placed while going
up or coming down a stair is known as tread.
Going or run:- The horizontal distance between any two adjacent risers in a stair
is called going or run.
Rise:- The vertical distance between any two adjacent treads in a stair is called
rise.
Bull-nose step:- The step with one or both ends rounded is known as bull nose
step. This type of step is generally provided at the bottom of a flight and is
always projecting beyond the face of the newel post.
IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS (-ctd-)
Nosing:- The projecting edge of a tread beyond its riser in a step is called nosing.
The line joining nosing of all steps in a flight is known as line of nosing.
Pitch or slope:- The angle between the line of nosing and the floor or landing is
called pitch or slope of a stair.
String or stringer:- The inclined support to which the ends of treads and risers of
a stair are fastened is called a string or stringer.
Balusters:- The vertical members provided in between the steps and the hand
rail are called balusters. These members act as intermediate supports to
the hand rail.
Newel or newel post:- The posts provided at the bottom, top and all the turning
points in a stair to support the hand rail are known as newels or newels
posts.
IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS (-ctd-)
Soffit:- The under surface of a stair is called soffit.
Flier:- A step of uniform width is called flier. This type of step is rectangular in plan. Such steps
are always preferred even at turning points of a stair as they are safe for quick
movements of the uses.
Winder:- A step of non-uniform width is known as winder. This type of step is usually triangular
in plan. Such steps are only provided for changing the direction of a stair and should be
avoided as far as possible since they are dangerous for quick movement of the users.
Landing:- The horizontal platform provided in between any two flights of a stair is called landing.
The landing which provides 90° turn in the layout of a stair is known as quarter space
landing and if the turn is through 180°, it is called half-space landing
Head room:- The height between the line of nosing to the soffit of a flight or ceiling of roof
immediately above is called head room.
Width of a stair case:- The width of enclosure accommodating the stair in a building is called
width of stair case. It depends upon the layout and width of the stair.
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD STAIR
• The height of the hand rail should neither be more than 0.85 m
nor less than 0.75m measured vertically from the line of nosing
to the top of hand rail.
• The following dimensions of going and rise are generally used for different
buildings:-
Residential buildings = 25 cm x 16 cm
Public buildings such as theatres, colleges, banks etc
=27 cm x 15 cm or 30 cm x 14 cm.
Industrial buildings = The going should not be less than 25 cm
and rise not more than 19 cm.
• It should be noted that the rules given above only act as guide but the actual
dimensions of going and rise depend upon the space available, height of the
building and layout of the stair.
PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED WHILE PLANNING
AND DESIGNING A STAIR
2. Pitch of the stair:- The pitch or slope of the stair should not be
more than 40° and should not be less than 25° for comfortable
ascend and descend.
3. Width of stair:- The width of a stair must not be less than 0.85 m
so that a person going up can pass a person coming down
without any difficulty. The minimum width of stair in a
residential building should be 1.05 m whereas in case of a public
building, a minimum width of 1.5 m is desirable.
1- Straight flight stairs:- The stair which rises from one floor to
another in one direction is known as straight flight or simply
straight stair (see fig. 2 a). This type of stair may be
constructed with or without landing. This type of stair is only
suitable for a long and a narrow staircase.
2- Quarter turn stairs:- The stair which turns through 90° either
to the left or to the right is known as quarter turn stair (see
fig. 2 b & c). This type of stair may be provided with winders
as shown in fig. 2 (b) or with a quarter-space landing as shown
in fig 2(c). This type of stair is suitable where the width
staircase is more but it has got limited length.
CLASSIFICATION OF STAIRS ACCORDING TO THEIR LAYOUT
The stair which turns through 180° is known as half turn stair (see fig. 2 d &c). In such
stairs, the adjacent flights are in opposite directions separated by half-space landings,
two sets of winders or two quarter space landings according to the space available.
• Half turn stairs are further classified into the following two types:-
(a) Dog-legged stairs:- A half turn stair with no space between its flights is known as
dog legged stair (see fig. 2 d). This type of stair is suitable where the width of
the stair case is limited and is commonly used for single or double storied modern
buildings.
(b) Open well stairs:- A half turn stair with a space (called well) between its flights is
known as open well stair (see fig. 2 e and f). This stair is also known as an open newel
stair when the well left between the flights is of rectangular shape see fig. 2 (e). If the
space for this type of stair is limited, a short flight is introduced on the narrow side of
the well with two quarter space landings as shown in fig. 2 (f).This type of stair is
suitable for multi-storied buildings as in this case the well allows for top lighting.
CLASSIFICATION OF STAIRS ACCORDING TO THEIR LAYOUT
(-ctd-)
4. Geometrical stairs: A half turn stair in which the dwell is of curved shape
between the forward and backward flights is called geometrical stair (see fig.
2 g). In this type of stair, the change in direction is obtained by winders. It
provides easy turning but is tiresome as it is generally without landing. This
type of stair is suitable for single or double storied buildings.
5. Circular stair:- The stair which is provided in a circular stair case is called
circular stair (see fig. 2 h). In this stair, the strings and the hand rails are
continuous and the change in direction is obtained by winders. All the steps
may be supported by a newel at the centre or there may be a circular well
hole. A circular stair having all is steps radiating from a central newel is
known as spiral stair. This type of stair is suitable when a limited space is
available for the stair case. Iron spiral stairs are very suitable for back door
entrance as they occupy very little space.
6. Bifurcating stairs:- This stair having its bottom flight wide which is divided into
two narrow flights at the landing at right angles in the opposite direction is
called a bifurcating stair (see fig. 2 i). This type of stair is suitable for public
buildings, assembly halls, railway foot bridges etc.
MAINTENANCE OF BUILDINGS
1. Routine maintenance
2. Special Repair
(a) ROUTINE MAINTENANCE