WEEK 8

Spread-spectrum
modulation – direct
sequence spread spectrum

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SPREAD SPECTRUM
 Spread data over wide bandwidth
• Makes jamming and interception harder
• Frequency hoping
 Signal broadcast over seemingly random series
of frequencies
• Direct Sequence
– Each bit is represented by multiple bits in
transmitted signal
– Chipping code

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GENERAL MODEL OF SPREAD SPECTRUM
SYSTEM

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NEXT…
PSEUDO-NOISE SEQUENCES
 Both types of spread-spectrum require a noiselike
code which will be used to modulate with
transmitted signal or control oscillator for direct
sequence and frequency hopping, respectively.

 This noiselike sequence is called pseudo-noise

sequence or PN code.

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PSEUDO-NOISE SEQUENCES
 Feedback shift registers are used.

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PSEUDO-NOISE SEQUENCES
 Output sequence depends on the length of shift-
register (m), initial state and feedback logic.
 For m flip-flop the number of states is 2m.

 The maximum length of the period of this

sequence is also 2m.

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PSEUDO-NOISE SEQUENCES
 In case that feedback logic consists
entirely with modular-2 adders (XOR
gate) only, the initial state cannot be
all zero state.
 And the period of this PN sequence
produced by linear feedback cannot
exceed 2m-1.
 When the period is exactly 2m-1, the
PN sequence is called a maximal-
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length sequence or m-sequence
MAXIMUM LENGTH SEQUENCE (M =3)

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PSEUDO-NOISE SEQUENCES
 Possible states of shift registers are
 001
 010
 011
 100
 101
 110
 111

Maximum-length (ML) shift register

sequences, m-stage shift register, length: n 12
= 2m–1 bits
MAXIMUM LENGTH SEQUENCE (M =3)

0
0
1
0
11
0
10
1 1
1
0
1 1
0
1
01
01
1 1
0
10
1
00
1 00
10
0

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 S0 = s1 + s3

S0 = S1 S2 S3
+ 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
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1 1 0 0
EXAMPLE OF PN

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SOLUTION

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maximal length sequence generator and receiver

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Chip rate,
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EXAMPLE

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SOLUTION

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CONT’D…

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CONT’D

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CONT’D…

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 CHOOSING MAXIMAL LENGTH SEQUENCE

Have very good autocorrelation but cross correlation not granted

Are linear,cyclic block codes - generated by feedbacked shift registers

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Number of available codes* depends on the number of shift register
stages:
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1 2 3 4 5

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EXAMPLE

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SOLUTION

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EXAMPLE

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SOLUTIONS

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CONTINUE

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NOTION OF SPREAD SPECTRUM

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 Bit duration

Chip duration

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 DIRECT-SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM

 In telecommunications, direct-sequence spread

spectrum (DSSS) is a modulation technique. As
with other spread spectrum technologies, the
transmitted signal takes up more bandwidth
than the information signal that is being
modulated.

 The name 'spread spectrum' comes from the fact

that the carrier signals occur over the full
bandwidth (spectrum) of a device's transmitting
frequency. Certain IEEE 802.11 standards use
DSSS signaling. 38
DSSS WITH COHERENT BPSK

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DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM
WITH COHERENT BPSK (DS/BPSK)

 Sinceboth spread spectrum and BPSK

modulation are linear operation, we can
switch their order to make the problem
easy to solve.

Inteference
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM
WITH COHERENT BPSK (DS/BPSK)

 From the figure, we assume that the

performance is limited by the interference
j(t) only. Channel noise is not considered
here.
 Received signal before coherent detector is
u t   c(t ). y (t )  c(t )x(t )  j (t )
 c(t ) x(t )  c(t ) j (t )
 c 2 (t ) s(t )  c(t ) j (t )
 s(t )  c(t ) j (t )
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM
WITH COHERENT BPSK (DS/BPSK)

 When passing through coherent detector

the output is given by
T
2 b
V  u (t ) cos2f c t dt
Tb 0
T T
2 b 2 b
  s (t ) cos2f c t dt   c(t ) j (t ) cos2f c t dt
Tb 0 Tb 0
T
2 b
  Eb   c(t ) j (t ) cos2f c t dt
Tb 0
 Vs  Vcj
 DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM
WITH COHERENT BPSK (DS/BPSK)

 It can be proven that if j(t) has average

energy J
 Vcj has mean = 0
 Vcj has variance = JTc/2
 Hence

( SNR)o 
signal power

 
E b 2Eb
2

 (1)
noise power JTc / 2 JTc
Input signal to noise ratio

( SNR) I 
signal power

 2E / T 
b b
2
/2

Eb
(2)
noise power J JTb
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM
WITH COHERENT BPSK (DS/BPSK)
 Hence eliminating Eb/j between equations (1) and (2) on page 39,
We have
2Tb
( SNR) o  (SNR) I  N ( SNR) I
Tc
 Or

 3dB gain is from the use of coherent

detector
 10log N gain is from the use of spread
spectrum.
Tb
 Hence we call spread factor 
Tc as
PG
processing gain (PG)
 ANTIJAM CHARACTERISTICS
 Average probability error :

Therefore the equation becomes

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JAMMING MARGIN (ANTIJAM
CHARACTERISTICS)

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CONT’D…

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CONT’D…

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EXAMPLE:

SOLUTION

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EXAMPLE

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CONT’D...

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CONT’D…

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EXAMPLE

Solution

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EXAMPLE

SOLUTION

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EXAMPLE

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SOLUTION

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FREQUENCY-HOP SPREAD SPECTRUM
(FHSS)

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 THE FHSS TECHNOLOGY
 Channel sequence dictated by spreading code
 Receiver, hopping between frequencies in
synchronization with transmitter, picks up
message
 Advantages
 Eavesdroppers hear only unintelligible blips
 Attempts to jamsignal on one frequency succeed only
at knocking out a few bits

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FREQUENCY HOPING SPREAD SPECTRUM

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 APPLICATION OF FHSS
 Bluetooth uses FHSS technology. In US there 79
channels in Bluetooth technology.

 The protocol operates in the unlicensed ISM

band at 2.4-2.4835 GHz.

 The Bluetooth protocol divides the band into 79

channels (each 1 MHz wide) and changes
channels 1600 times per second.

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FREQUENCY-HOP SPREAD SPECTRUM
(FHSS)
 Two types:
– Slow Hopping
• Dwell time long enough to transmit several
bits in a row (timeslot)
– Fast Hopping
• Dwell time on the order of a bit or fraction
of a bit (primarily for military systems)

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FHSS USING MFSK

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MULTIPLE FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING
(MFSK) -EXAMPLE

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FREQUENCY HOPPING (CONT)
 Slow frequency hopping used
in GSM
 Fast hopping in WLANS
 Provides frequency diversity
 By hopping mobile less likely
to suffer consecutive deep
fades

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 An FH/MFSK transmitter involves frequency modulation
followed by mixing.

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FH-MFSK
transmitter

 First, the binary data are applied to an M-ary FSK modulator.

 The resulting modulated wave and the output from a digital
frequency synthesizer are then applied to a mixer that
consists of a multiplier followed by a band-pass filter.
 A mixer is used to obtain frequency translation of the input signal.
 The bandpass filter is designed to select the sum frequency component
(= upper sideband!) resulting from the multiplication process as the
transmitted signal.
 In particular, successive n-bit segments of a PN sequence drive the
frequency synthesizer, which enables the carrier frequency to hop over 2n
distinct values.

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 On a single hop, the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is the same as
that resulting from the use of a conventional MFSK with an alphabet of M
= 2k orthogonal signals.
 However, for a complete range of 2k frequency hops, the transmitted
FH/MFSK signal occupies a much larger bandwidth.
 Due to these large FH bandwidths,the coherent detection is possible
only within each hop, because frequency synthesizers are unable to
maintain phase coherence over successive hops.
 Accordingly, most FH-SS communication systems use
noncoherent M-ary modulation schemes.
 In the receiver depicted below, the FH is first removed by
mixing (down-converting) the received signal with the
output of a local frequency synthesizer that is synchronously
controlled in the same manner as that in the transmitter.

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FH-MFSK receiver
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 The resulting output is then bandpass
filtered, and processed by a noncoherent
M-ary FSK detector.
 The processing gain (PG) of the slow FH/MFSK system is
defined by:
Wc
Wc = FH bandwidth PG   2 k

Rs
k = length of the PN segment employed to select a
frequency hop.

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 The PG can also be expressed in decibels:
10 log 10 2 k
Example
 Consider a slow FH/MFSK signal with the following
parameters:
Number of bits per MFSK symbol : K = 2
Number of MFSK tones: M = 2K = 4
Length of PN segment per hop: n=3
Total number of frequency hops: 2n = 8
 2 symbols (4 bits) transmitted per hop
(Symbol rate Rs > Hopping rate Rh)
Rs = 2Rh

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Only 3 of out of 8
possible frequencies
are utilized by the PN
sequence.

Slow-frequency hopping. (a) Frequency variation for FH- 4FSK

(b) Frequency variation for 4FSK (dehopped).
DS AND FH COMPARED
 FH is applicable in environments where there exist tone jammers that can be
overcame by avoiding hopping on those frequencies
 DS is applicable for multiple access because it allows statistical multiplexing
(resource reallocation) to other users (power control)
 FH applies usually non-coherent modulation due to carrier synchronization
difficulties -> modulation method degrades performance
Both methods were first used in military communications, Lc  10 ...10
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

 FH can be advantageous because the hopping span can be very large

(makes eavesdropping difficult)
 DS can be advantageous because spectral density can be much smaller
than background noise density (transmission is unnoticed)
 FH is an avoidance system: does not suffer near-far effect!
 By using hybrid systems some benefits can be combined: The system can
have a low probability of interception and negligible near-far effect at the same
time. (Differentially coherent modulation is applicable)
EXAMPLE

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SOLUTION

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