Introduction PPT 202586

Introduction
Hydrology:
Hydrology is the science which deals with the occurrence, distribution and
movement of water on the surface of the earth, including that in the atmosphere
and below the surface the earth.
Climate is the key factor in water supply planning .

Water balance equation is used to describe the flow of water in and out of a
system.
Precipitation is one of the main phase of hydrological cycle
Water losses includes
Evaporation
Transpiration
Evapotranspiration
Infiltration
Hydrological cycle
the rainfall records and the yearly discharge
Application
observation of hydrology
of a river.
Determination of peak flow of river.
Determination of suitable site for
hydroelectric power generation.
Sources of water supply in town or city.
Methods to be adopted for flood forecasting
and flood control.
Water balance
The basis of availability and general transportation of water and
pollutants for a specific area is called water balance equation.
Water balance equation can be used to describe the inflow and out flow of
water of a system.
It is used for many basic analysis of water availability in an area
Eg. To find how much water is available that can be used for drinking
purpose or irrigation.
Water balance
The hydrologic equation is nearly a statement of the law of conservation of
matter and is given by
Inflow = outflow + change in storage
The items of inflow are:

• Precipitation
• Surface inflow
• Subsurface inflow
• Imported water or sewage (piped or channel into the basin)
Water balance
The items of outflow are:
• Surface outflow
• Subsurface outflow
• Evaporation
• Transpiration
• Evapo-transpiration
• Exported water or sewage
Water balance
The items of change in storage are:
• Change in soil moisture storage
• Change in ground water storage
• Snow cover
• Surface storage
• Depression storage
• Detention storage
• Channel storage
Water balance
For a specific area ad specific time period, the water equation can
be written as
P = Q + E + ΔS
Where, P = precipitation
Q = runoff
E = evapotranspiration
ΔS = change in storage
Precipitation
Precipitation is one of the main phase of hydrological cycle. It includes all
moisture the reaches the earth surface in liquid or solid form due to
condensation of the atmospheric vapour.
It is defined as the fall of moisture from the atmosphere to the earth
surface in any form.
But only rainfall and snowfall contributes significantly to water resources.

Precipitation
Forms of precipitation:
Rainfall
It is main form of precipitation in India. When the size of the water droplet
is larger than 0.5mm, it is called rainfall. The maximum size of raindrop is about
6mm. Rainfall may be light, moderate and heavy if it is
2.5mm/hr = light
2.5mm/hr to 7.5mm/hr = moderate
More than 7.5mm/hr = heavy
Precipitation
Snow
Snow is another important form of precipitation. Snow consists of ice
crystals which usually combines to form flakes. New fresh snow has an initial
density from 0.06 to 0.15 g/cm3 and the average value assumed to be 0.1 g/cm3. in
india snow falls in Himalayan region.
Drizzle
A fine sprinkle of numerous water droplets of size less than 0.5mm and
intensity less than 1mm/h is known as drizzle. The drops are so small that they
seem to float in air.
Precipitation
Glaze
When rain or drizzle comes in contact with cold ground at around 0 degree
Celsius, the water drops freeze to form an ice coating called glaze or freezing rain.
Sleet
They are frozen rain drops of transparent grains, which forms when rain
falls through sub freezing temperature.
Dew
Dew forms directly by condensation on the ground mainly during the night
when the surface has been cooled by the outgoing radiation.
Precipitation
Hail
Precipitation in the form of balls or irregular lumps of ice of size more than
8mm in diameter is known as hail
Precipitation
Classification of precipitation
Cyclonic classification
• Frontal precipitation
• Non-frontal precipitation
Convective precipitation
Orographic precipitation
Precipitation due to turbulent ascent
Precipitation
Variability of precipitation
Latitudinal variation
Distance from moisture source
Orographic influences
Time distribution of precipitation
Seasonal variation
Diurnal variation
Measurement of rainfall
Non recording type rainguage
Non recording type raingauge
Symon’s rain gauge is also known as non-recording rain gauge.
Consists of metal casing of dia. 127mm which is on concrete

foundation.
A glass of bottle of capacity about 100mm of rainfall is placed within

the casing.
A funnel with brass rim is placed in the top of bottle.

Non recording type raingauge
The rainfall is recorded at every 24hrs. Generally the measurement is
taken at 8:30 a.m.
In case of heavy rainfall the measurement should be taken 2 or 3

times daily.
To measure the amount of rainfall the glass bottle is taken off the
collected water is measured in a measuring glass and recorded in
register.
Automatic Rainguages
In this type of rain gauge, the amount of rainfall is automatically
recorded on a graph paper by some mechanical device.
No person is required for the measurement of rainfall from the

container in which the rain water is collected.
Self recording gauges are used to determine rated of rainfall over

short period of time.
Automatic Rain gauges
These are integrating type recording rain gauges and are of three
types.
I. Weighing bucket rain gauge.
II. Tipping bucket rain gauge.
III. Float-type rain gauge.
1. Weighing bucket rain gauge
The weighing bucket rain gauge essentially consists of receiver bucket
supported by a spring or lever balance.
The movement of the bucket due to increasing weight is transmitted to a

pen which traces a curve on a clock driven recording drum.
The rain gauge produces the graph of cumulative rainfall versus time and
hence sometimes called integrating rain gauge. The graph is known as
mass curve of rainfall
1. Weighing bucket rain gauge
1. Tipping bucket rain gauge
The tipping bucket type rain gauge consists of 30cm dia. sharp edge
receiver. A funnel is provided at the end of receiver.
A pair of bucket is pivoted under the funnel in such a way that when
one bucket receives 0.25mm of rainfall, it tips, discharging the water
into the reservoir kept below the bucket.
At the same time another bucket comes below the funnel and the rain
water goes on collecting in it.
1. Tipping bucket rain gauge
1. Float type rain gauge
Missing rainfall data
The following methods are generally used for to estimate the
missing rainfall data
1. Arithmetic average method
2. Normal ratio method
3. Comparison method
4. Interpolation from isohyetal maps

I. Arithmetic average method
If the normal annual rainfalls precipitation at the adjacent stations are within
10% of the normal annual rainfall of the station under consideration, then the
missing rainfall data may be estimated as a simple arithmetic average of the
rainfalls at the adjacent rain gauges.
If the missing precipitation at station X is Px and P1, P2, …..Pm are the
rainfalls at m surrounding rain gauges.
II. Normal ratio method
If the normal annual rainfalls at the adjacent stations are within differs from
the normal annual rainfall of the station under consideration by more than
10%, the normal ratio method is preferred.
In this method the rainfall values at the surrounding stations are weighed by
the ratio of the normal annual rainfall
II. Comparison method (station-year method)
In this method the records of two or more station are combined into one long
record provided station records are independent and the areas in which the
located stations are climatologically the same
The missing record at a station in a particular year may be found by the ratio
of averages or by graphical comparison.
If the rainfall record of a rain gauge station X is missing it can be estimated by
comparing the mean annual rainfall of the station X with that of an adjoining
station A.
II. Comparison method (station-year method)
PX NX
=
PA NA
Where PX and PA are the rainfalls at the stations X and A for missing period,
and NX and NA are the mean annual rainfalls of the stations X and A.
II. Interpolation from isohyetal maps
Isohyets are the contours of equal rainfall depths. An isohyetal map is
prepared from the record of various raingauge stations by
interpolation.
Missing precipitation records may be interpolated from the isohyetal

maps .
Interpolation of missing data from such maps will be reasonably

accurate.
Checking the consistency of data of
rain gauge station
Sometimes a significant change may occur in and around a particular
rain gauge station. It then becomes necessary to verify the rainfall
record of this station. This is known as verification of consistency of a
rain gauge station.
Some of the common causes for the inconsistency of record are:

1. Change in the location of the rain gauge station.
2. The neighbourhood of the station undergoing a marked change.
3. Change in the instrument.
4. Occurrence of observational error from certain date.
Checking the consistency of data of
rain gauge station
The checking of inconsistency of a record is done by the double mass curve technique.
The precipitation value at station X beyond the period of change of regime is corrected
by using the relation.
Mc
Pcx = Px ×
Ma
Where, Pcx = corrected value of rainfall at the rain gauge station X

Px = original recorded value of rainfall at the rain gauge
station X at any time prior to change
Mc = corrected slope of double mass curve for the years after
the change
Ma = original slope of the double mass curve for the year
prior to the change
Average depth of rainfall
The following three methods are generally adopted to calculate the
average depth of rainfall
1) Arithmetic average method.
2) Thiessen polygon method.
3) Isohyetal method.
1) Arithmetic average method:
In this method the rainfall value obtained from all rain gauge stations are
added and divided by the number of stations to get the average value.
This method is suitable, when the rain gauge stations are uniformly distributed
over the basin.
𝑃1 +𝑃2 + … +𝑃𝑛 σ𝑃
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
𝑁 𝑁
2) Thiessen polygon method:
The arithmetic average method is most approximate method since
rainfall varies in intensity and duration from place to place.
This method is highly suitable for large areas.
In this method the rainfall recorded by each rain gauge station should
be weighted according to the area it is assumed to represent.
It is also called weighted mean method and is more accurate than the
arithmetic average method.
3) Isohyetal method:
When the rainfall is controlled by topography, the isohyetal method

is the most accurate in such conditions.
𝑃1 + 𝑃2
σ𝐴
𝑃= 2
σ𝐴
Design of rain gauge network
(density of rain gauge station)
According to Indian standard (IS:4987-1968) the following rain gauge station
is required.
1. In plains, 1 station/520 𝑘𝑚2 .
2. In region of average elevation of 1000m, 1 station/260-360 𝑘𝑚2 .
3. Hilly areas with heavy rainfall, 1 station/130 𝑘𝑚2 .

Following are the steps in the estimation of optimum number of rain gauges:
Step 1: Calculate the total rainfall

෍ 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + … + 𝑃𝑛
where n = number of existing rain gauge stations

Step 2: Calculate mean rainfall
σ𝑃
𝑃ത =
𝑛
Step 3: Calculate the sum of the squares of all the rainfall of the gauges
෍ 𝑃2 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃22 + … . +𝑃𝑛2
Step 4: Calculate mean of square

σ 𝑃 2
𝑃2 =
𝑛
Following are the steps in the estimation of optimum number of rain gauges:
Step 5: Calculate sample standard deviation

𝑛 𝑃2 − 𝑃ത 2
𝜎=
𝑛−1
Step 6: Calculate the coefficient of variation
100𝜎
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑃ത
Step 7: The optimum number of rain gauges can be obtained by following equation
2
𝐶𝑣
𝑁=
𝐸
Step 8: Additional number required = (𝑁 − 𝑛)
Analysis of rainfall data
A rainfall at a place can be completely described, if its intensity,
duration and frequency are known.
The intensity of the rainfall is the rate at which it is falling.
The duration is the time for which rainfall is falling with the given
intensity.
Frequency is the number of times the rainfall falls.

Mass rainfall curve
Hyetograph
Hyetograph
Evaporation and its
measurement
Evaporation and its
measurement
Evaporation and its
measurement
Factors affecting evaporation
1. The vapour at the water surface and air above
2. Air and water temperature
3. Wind speed
4. Atmospheric pressure
5. Quality of water
6. Size of the water body
7. Depth of the water in the water body
8. Humidity
9. Radiation
Evaporation and its
measurement
Evaporation and its
measurement
Evaporation and its
measurement
Evaporation and its
measurement
Energy budget method:
This method is based on the application of law of the conservation of energy.
The energy required for the evaporation process is determined by considering the
incoming, outgoing and stored energies in the water body at one time.
In a specific time, the energy received by the water from the sun or from the atmosphere
is accounted and then the energy utilised for evaporation is calculated, thus the actual
evaporation is worked out.
𝑄𝐼 = 𝑄𝑅 ± 𝑄𝑆 + 𝑄𝐸
Where, 𝑄𝐼 = total energy received from sun’s radiation
𝑄𝑅 = energy reflected back into the atmosphere by water
𝑄𝑆 = change in the energy of stored water
𝑄𝐸 = energy required for evaporation
Evaporation and its
measurement
Mass transfer method:
46.08 𝑒1 − 𝑒2 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
𝐸= 2
𝑧
𝑇 + 273 𝑙𝑛 2
𝑧1
Where, 𝐸 = evaporation in mm/h

𝑧1 , 𝑧2 = arbitrary levels above water surface levels in meter
𝑒1 , 𝑒2 = vapour pressure at 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 in mm Hg
𝑣1 , 𝑣2 = wind velocity at 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 in km/h
T = Average temperature in °C between 𝑧1 and 𝑧2
Evaporation and its
measurement
Methods of actual observations:
Evaporation can be measured by an instrument known as atmometer.
The following are normal atmometer
1. Livingstone atmometer.
2. Piche atmometer.
Pan observation:
 The five methods of estimation of evaporation are not directly applicable in design
problem and also in some cases required data are not easily available.
 Therefore, in most of the design problems, evaporations is measured by evaporation

pan which are called evaporimeters
Evaporation and its
measurement
Evaporation and its
measurement
Evaporation and its
measurement
Transpiration and its
measurement
Factors affecting transpiration
 Sunlight
 Moisture available
 Stage of plant development
Measurement of transpiration
 Phytometer
 Transpiration ratio
Evapotranspiration and its
measurement
Factors affecting evapotranspiration
 Meteorological factors
• Potential evapotranspiration increases as the temperature, sunshine, and the wind
velocity increases but decreases as the humidity increases.
 Plant and soil factors

 Evapotranspiration is less if the adjoining land is also cropped because the air
becomes cool and more humid.
 Evapotranspiration depends upon the stage of the plant growth. Thus in the
seedling stage the evapotranspiration is high.
 The greater is the density of vegetation, the greater is the evapotranspiration.

measurement
Measurement of evapotranspiration
 Direct measurement of evapotranspiration.
• Tank or lysimeter method

• Field experimental plots
• Soil moisture studies
• Integration method
• Inflow and outflow studies for large areas
Evapotranspiration and its measurement
 Empirical formula
• Blaney-Criddle method
𝑘𝑝 4.61𝑡 + 81.3
𝐸𝑇 = ෍
100
Where, ET = evapotranspiration in cm
t = mean monthly temperature in °C
k = monthly consumptive use coefficient determined from experimental data
p = monthly percentage of hours of bright sunshine
measurement
measurement
Evapotranspiration and its measurement
• Christiansen equation
The Christiansen equation for estimation of evapotranspiration is
𝑃𝐸𝑇 = 0.473 𝑄0 𝐶
Where, 𝑄0 = solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere converted to mm of

equivalent evaporation
C = coefficient derived from series of climatic measurement like
temperature, humidity, wind, sunshine, elevation, etc.
Infiltration
Factors affecting infiltration

 Vegetal cover
 Soil moisture  Condition of soil surface
 Intensity of rainfall  Compaction of soil
 Temperature  Human activities
 Duration of the rainfall  Depth of surface detention
 Texture of soil  Other factors

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Introduction PPT 202586

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Introduction

Climate is the key factor in water supply planning .

It is used for many basic analysis of water availability in an area

The items of inflow are:

But only rainfall and snowfall contributes significantly to water resources.

Distance from moisture source

Time distribution of precipitation

Consists of metal casing of dia. 127mm which is on concrete

A glass of bottle of capacity about 100mm of rainfall is placed within

A funnel with brass rim is placed in the top of bottle.

In case of heavy rainfall the measurement should be taken 2 or 3

No person is required for the measurement of rainfall from the

Self recording gauges are used to determine rated of rainfall over

The movement of the bucket due to increasing weight is transmitted to a

2. Normal ratio method

4. Interpolation from isohyetal maps

Missing precipitation records may be interpolated from the isohyetal

Interpolation of missing data from such maps will be reasonably

Some of the common causes for the inconsistency of record are:

Where, Pcx = corrected value of rainfall at the rain gauge station X

1) Arithmetic average method.

2) Thiessen polygon method.

This method is highly suitable for large areas.

When the rainfall is controlled by topography, the isohyetal method

1. In plains, 1 station/520 𝑘𝑚2 .

2. In region of average elevation of 1000m, 1 station/260-360 𝑘𝑚2 .

3. Hilly areas with heavy rainfall, 1 station/130 𝑘𝑚2 .

Step 1: Calculate the total rainfall

where n = number of existing rain gauge stations

Step 4: Calculate mean of square

Step 5: Calculate sample standard deviation

The intensity of the rainfall is the rate at which it is falling.

Frequency is the number of times the rainfall falls.

Where, 𝐸 = evaporation in mm/h

 Therefore, in most of the design problems, evaporations is measured by evaporation

 Plant and soil factors

 The greater is the density of vegetation, the greater is the evapotranspiration.

• Tank or lysimeter method

Where, 𝑄0 = solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere converted to mm of

Factors affecting infiltration

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