Distribution System Voltage Regulation

NOORNABI SHAIKH
VR/TG/09 2
 BASIC DEFINATIONS
Voltage Regulation: The percent voltage drop of a line (feeder) with respect to the receiving end voltage.

Vs  Vr
% regulation   100
Vr

 Voltage drop: The difference between the sending – end and receiving – end voltages of a line
 Nominal voltage: The nominal value assigned to a line or apparatus or a system of a given voltage class
 Rated voltage: The voltage at which performance and operating characteristics of apparatus are referred
 Service voltage: The voltage measured at the ends of the service – entrance
 Utilization voltage: The voltage measured at the end of an apparatus
 Base voltage: The reference voltage
 Maximum voltage: The largest 5 – min average voltage
 Minimum voltage: The smallest 5 – min voltage
 Voltage spread: The difference between the maximum and minimum voltages, without voltage dips due
to motor starting VR/TG/09 3
Voltage Standards and Quality of Service
Performance of distribution system and quality of the service are measured in terms of interruption free
and stable voltage levels at the consumer’s premises within appropriate limits.
Due to economic considerations utility company cannot provide each consumer with a constant voltage
to match the nameplate voltage of consumer apparatus.
Therefore, utility companies stay with preferred voltage levels and ranges of variations for satisfactory
operation of apparatus as set by ANSI, IEC, IEEE, etc.[National Electric Power Regulatory Authority,
NEPRA in Pakistan]
Too high steady state voltage causes reduced light bulb life, reduced life of electronic devices and
premature failure of apparatus.
Too low steady state voltage causes lowered illumination levels, shrinking of TV pictures, slow heating
of heaters, low speed of ceiling fans, difficulties of motor starting, and overheating / or burning out of
motors.
The Distribution Code, approved by NEPRA, is designed to perform a similar function to that of the Grid Code in
relation to Licensee’s networks; and is applicable to those which are connected to the Licensee’s 132/66/11/0.4 kV
network within its Service Territory, and the NTDC.

VR/TG/09 4
STANDARD VALUES (NEPRA PAKISTAN)
Standard Declared Voltage
• Single – phase two – wire system: 230 V
• Three phase system:
400 V (Phase to Neutral: 230V)
• Overall Standard 4- Nominal Voltages (OS4):
1. A distribution company shall supply power to at least 95% of its consumers within the range of ±
5% of the nominal voltage.
2. The following nominal voltages shall be used for the distribution system of a distribution company,
namely:-
a. 400/230 Volts
b. 11 kV
c. 33 kV
d. 66 kV
e. 132 kV
f. 220 kV (if applicable)
VR/TG/09 5
Overall Standard 5- Frequency (OS5):
1. A distribution company shall supply power to its consumers within the frequency range of 50 (±1%)
Hz.
2. The company shall supply electric power to its consumers of the power quality in accordance with
the IEEE Standard 519-1992 pertaining to harmonic content.

VR/TG/09 6
Voltage variations in 33 kV and 11kV feeders should not exceed the following limits at the farthest end
under peak load conditions and normal system operation regime.

 Above 33kV (-) 12.5% to (+) 10%.

 Up to 33kV (-) 9.0% to (+) 6.0%.
 Low voltage (-) 6.0% to (+) 6.0%

Sometimes it can be difficult to achieve the required voltage, especially in rural areas . Part of the
reason for the high voltage drop in rural areas it due to the fact that these areas are usually further was
from the electricity supplies. Therefore, the power lines have to be extended over long distances,
resulting in higher line losses. Power theft is a further factor which can contribute to voltage drops in
rural areas. In these cases, 11/0.433 kV rather than the usual 11/0.4 kV distribution transformers can be
used.

VR/TG/09 7
 Determination of Voltage Drop
• Feeder or line impedance is low but not negligible. Whenever load current flows, there is a voltage drop between
source and load terminals. The correct operation of a load (motors, lighting circuit, etc.) depends on voltage at its
terminals being maintained at value close to its rated value.
• Therefore it is important to determine the circuit parameters (R, L ,C, etc.) such that at full – load current, the load
terminal voltage maintained within the limits required for correct performance of load.
Maximum allowable voltage-drop vary from one country to another. Typical values for LV installations are given below
in
Type of installations Lightning Other uses (heating
circuits & power)
A low voltage service connection from a LV 3% 5%
public power distribution network.
Consumers MV/LV substation supplied form 6% 8%
a public distribution MV system.
 These voltage-drop limits refer to normal steady-state operating conditions and do not apply at times of motor
starting, simultaneous switching (by chance) of several loads, etc.
 When voltage drops exceed the values shown in table, larger cables (wires) must be used to correct the
condition.(??)
VR/TG/09 8
Maximum Voltage Drop

VR/TG/09 9
The value of 8%, while permitted, can lead to problems for motor loads; for example:

─ In general, satisfactory motor performance requires a voltage within ± 5% of its rated nominal value in
steady-state operation,
─ Starting current of a motor can be 5 to 7 times its full-load value (or even higher). If an 8% voltage
drop occurs at full-load current, then a drop of 40% or more will occur during start-up. In such
conditions the motor will either:
 Stall (i.e. remain stationary due to insufficient torque to overcome the load torque) with consequent
over-heating and eventual trip-out
 Or accelerate very slowly, so that the heavy current loading (with possibly undesirable low-voltage
effects on other equipment) will continue beyond the normal start-up period

─ Finally an 8% voltage drop represents a continuous power loss, which, for continuous loads will be a
significant waste of (metered) energy. For these reasons it is recommended that the maximum value of
8% in steady operating conditions should not be reached on circuits which are sensitive to under-
voltage problems

VR/TG/09 10
  Voltage on a distribution feeder varies from a maximum value at
the customer near to the source (1st customer) to a minimum value
at the end of the feeder (last customer).
 Table shown below gives secondary voltage standards applicable
to residential and commercial customers.

11 VR/TG/09
 These voltage limits may be set by the state regulatory
authority as a guide to be followed by the utility. (NEPRA
in PK).
 From table it can be observed: for any given nominal
voltage level, the actual operating values can vary over a
large range. This range has been segmented into three
zones:
1. The favorable or preferred zone
2. The tolerable zone
3. The extreme zone
The favorable zone includes majority of the existing operating
voltages and voltages within this range (A) produce
satisfactory operation of customer’s equipment.

The tolerable zone contains a band of operating voltages

slightly above and below the favorable zone. The operating
voltage in this range (B) are usually acceptable for most
purposes. (performance of apparatus may be less than
warranted by the manufacturer)
VR/TG/09 12
The extreme or emergency zone include voltages on the borders of the tolerable zone, usually 2% to 3% above or below
the tolerable zone. They may or may not be acceptable depending on the type of application.

 If operating voltage is held within the extreme zone, the customer’s apparatus may still be expected to provide
dependable operation, but not the standard performance.

 Voltages outside the extreme zone should not be tolerated under any conditions and should be improved
immediately.

NOTE:
The maximum voltage drop in the customer’s wiring between the point of delivery and the point of utilization is
accepted as 4 V based on 120 V.

VR/TG/09 13
PROBLEM 1
Consider the 3 – phase, 4 – wire 416V secondary system with balanced per - phase loads at A, B, and C
as shown:

Determine the following:

a. Calculate the total voltage drop, or voltage regulation, in one phase of the lateral by using the
approximate method.
b. Calculate the real power per phase for each load.
c. Calculate the reactive power per phase for each load.
d. Calculate the kilovolt ampere output and load power factor of the distribution transformer.

VR/TG/09 14
VR/TG/09 15
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VR/TG/09 17
VR/TG/09 18
Thus the total 3  phase kVA output of distribution transformer is
3  22.457  67.37 kVA

VR/TG/09 19
H.W PROBLEM
Consider the 3 – phase, 3 – wire 416V secondary system with balanced loads at A, B, and C as shown:

Determine the following:

a. Calculate the total voltage drop, or voltage regulation, in one phase of the lateral by using the
approximate method.
b. Calculate the real power per phase for each load.
c. Calculate the reactive power per phase for each load.
d. Calculate the kilovolt ampere output and load power factor of the distribution transformer.

VR/TG/09 20
PROBLEM 02
An 18km (11.2 mi), 60 Hz, single – circuit, 3 – phase line is composed of “Partridge” conductors equilaterally spaced
with 1.6m (approx. 5.25ft) between centers. The line impedance is 0.3792 + j 0.6662 Ω/mile/phase. The line delivers
2.5MW at 11kV to a balanced load.

 What must be the sending – end voltage and the corresponding voltage regulation when the power factor is (a) 80%
lagging, (b) unity (c) 90% leading?
 Verify your calculations by volt – amp method, per – unit method and graphically.

V1<δ V2<0O

ZL = 0.3792 + j0.6662 LOAD

VR/TG/09 21
SOLUTION

V1<δ V2<0O

18 km line

ZL = 0.3792 + j0.6662 LOAD

 Line impedance in miles and polar

Z  (0.3792  j 0.6662)  11.2

 4.247  j 7.461
 8.58  60.4o

VR/TG/09 22
(a) Sending End voltage at 80% lagging load & corresponding VR
As V1  V2  I Z
2500
I   164   36.9 o As Cos 1 0.8  36.9o
3 11  0.8
11000
V2   0O  6351  0O
3
V1  6351  164   36.9O  8.58  60.4O
 6351 0O  1407  23.5O
 6351  j 0.0  1290  j 561
 7641  j 561
 7661.5  4.2o
Sending end line voltage
V1  3  7661.5  13720 V [ Exact solution ]
Approximate Solution
V  I R Cos   I X Sin 
 164  4.26  0.8  164  7. 46 VR/TG/09
0.6  1291.3V / phase 23
 V1

4.2O
36.9O V2 jIX
IR

Phasor Diagram, Graphical Solution

I

Line Losses  3  I 2R
 3  164 2  4.24
 342 k W
Reactive Power Loss

 3  I2 X
 3  164 2  7.45
 601 kVAR
VR/TG/09 24
% VOLTAGE REGULATION
V
  100
V2
1291.3
  100  20.3 %
6351

EFFICIENCY
2500
  100  88%
2500  342

VR/TG/09 25
(b) For power factor = 1.0

(c) For power factor = 0.9 leading

VR/TG/09 26
VR/TG/09 27
VOLTAGE CONTROL
To improve the distribution system’s overall voltage regulation, following methods may be used:
1. Generator voltage regulators
2. Voltage regulating equipment in the distribution substations
3. Capacitors in the distribution substation
4. Balancing the loads on the primary feeders
5. Increasing feeder conductor size
6. Changing of feeder section from single phase to multiple phase (3 - phase)
7. Transferring loads to new feeders
8. Installing new substations and primary feeders
9. Increasing primary voltage level
10. Voltage regulators out on the primary feeders
11. Shunt capacitors on the primary feeders
12. Series capacitors on the primary feeders

VR/TG/09 28
 Voltage control techniques depends upon the particular system requirement.
 Automatic voltage regulation is provided by:

1. Bus regulation at the substation

2. Individual feeder regulation in the substation
3. Supplementary regulation along the main by regulators mounted on poles.

Distribution substations are equipped with load – tap – changing (LTC) transformers that operate
automatically under load or with separate voltage regulators that provide bus regulation.
▬ Voltage – regulating apparatus are designed to maintain automatically a predetermined level of voltage
that would vary with the load.
▬ If customers are located at long distances from the substation or where voltage drop along the primary
circuit is excessive, additional regulators or capacitors, located at selected points on the feeder, provide
supplementary regulation.

VR/TG/09 29
FEEDER VOLTAGE REGULATORS
Used to regulate the voltage of each feeder separately to maintain a reasonable constant voltage at the point
of utilization. They are either induction type or the step type. Modern step – type voltage regulators replaced
induction type regulators.
Step – type regulators can be either;

1. Station type: single phase or three phase, can be used in substation for bus voltage regulation (BVR)
2. Individual voltage regulation, or distribution type: only single phase and used pole – mounted out on the
overhead primary feeders.
Step – type voltage regulator is fundamentally an autotransformer with many taps (or steps) in the series
winding. Mostly designed to correct the line voltage from 10% boost to 10% buck (i.e., +- 10%) in 32 steps,
with 5/8% voltage change per step.
In addition to its autotransformer component, a step – type regulator has two other major components;
1. Tap – changing mechanism
2. Control mechanism

VR/TG/09 30
Step-voltage regulators are typically installed on:
▬ Existing feeders - before the point where the voltage drop problem starts with heavy load
▬ Important laterals
▬ To serve a remotely located load
Utility step-voltage regulators are primarily use for boosting voltage on long feeders where the load is
changing slowly over several minutes or hours. The voltage band typically ranges from 1.5 to 3.0 V on a
120-volt base.
The control can be set to maintain voltage at some point down the line from the feeder by using the line
drop compensator capability. This results in a more level average voltage response and helps prevent over
voltages on customers near the regulator.

VR/TG/09 31
CAPACITORS FOR LINE VOLTAGE REGULATION
Since most loads are lagging and the line reactance is much higher than the line resistance, switching shunt
capacitors across the line will increase the voltage by reducing the inductive VARs drawn as in power
factor correction.(capacitors regulating voltage)
Shunt capacitor are only effective with lagging load power factor.
The capacitors are installed near load points. To raise the voltage along the lateral as shown in the figure
(a) the capacitors are installed at points A, B, and C.

VR/TG/09 32
• Capacitor installations are usually in 3 – banks,
one for each phase. Switched capacitors can be,
and sometimes are, installed on long single –
phase distribution lines.

• Fixed value banks must be selected for those

loads where change of voltage between light and
heavy loads is not excessive, and is centered
around the nominal voltage.

• Switched capacitor banks, which contains a

number of smaller capacitors that are switched in
parallel to obtain the needed capacitance, are
used when a compromise cannot be due to large
load variations.

VR/TG/09 33
All capacitor banks require protection.

 Entire bank is protected with a fuse or circuit breaker.

 The capacitors can be connected either delta or star.
 The ungrounded star is the preferred pattern because if a
capacitor short out in one leg of the star the other two
legs will limit the fault current.

VR/TG/09 34
 Charging of capacitors can cause a large transient current when energized.
▬ Small reactors (when XL << XC) in series with the capacitors effectively reduce the inrush current by
limiting the rate of rise of the current.
▬ Shunt capacitors are installed in radial feeders to correct load power factor. Their only current is from
the VARs.
▬ Series capacitors are connected with line and they carry full line current.

 The capacitor voltage as well as current varies with the load. The capacitive reactance of the series
capacitors is used to cancel the inductive reactance of the line to reduce the voltage drop along the
line.

VR/TG/09 35
Circuit and phasor representation of shunt connected
capacitor with line to regulate the line voltage

VR/TG/09 36
Circuit and phasor representation of series capacitor
connected with line to regulate the line voltage

VR/TG/09 37
Tap Changers For Line Voltage Regulation
A tap changer is a mechanism in transformers which allows for variable turn ratios to be selected in
discrete steps.
Normally taps are located on the primary because less current has to be switched.
Tap changer can be manual or automatic.
Manual, in case when added load can be compensated for, such as new shop in a shopping center or new
street of residences.
Motor driven automatic tap changers are necessary for voltage regulation with widely fluctuating loads.
This is called tap changing under load (TCUL) or load tap changing (LTC).
These systems usually possess 33 taps (one at center "Rated" tap and sixteen to increase and decrease the
turn ratio) and allow for ±10% variation (each step providing 0.625% variation) from the nominal
transformer rating which, in turn, allows for stepped voltage regulation of the output.
There are two types of tape changers;
1. No load tap changer (NLTC)
2. On load tap changer (OLTC) also called under load tap changer (TCUL)
VR/TG/09 38
1. No Load Tap Changers (OFF LOAD TAP CHANGER)
No load tap changers are mostly used where turn ratio doesn't require frequent changing and it is permissible
to de-energize the transformer system. This type of transformer is frequently employed in low power, low
voltage transformers in which, line to be disconnected by hand and connected to the new terminal.
Alternatively, in some systems, the process of tap changing may be assisted by means of a rotary or slider
switch.
No load tap changers are also employed in high voltage transformers in which primary winding to
accommodate system variations within a narrow band around the nominal rating. In such systems, the tap
changer will often be set just once, at the time of installation, although it may be changed later during a
scheduled outage to accommodate a long-term change in the system voltage profile.

VR/TG/09 39
 2. On Load Tap Changers OR (TCUL) (LTC)
A supply interruption during a tap change in many applications is unacceptable, and the transformer is often fitted with
a more expensive and complex on load tap changing (OLTC, sometimes load tap changer, LTC) mechanism. On load
tap changers may be generally classified as either mechanical, electronically assisted, or fully electronic.

 The principle used is ‘make-before-break’:

this means that the new tap must be connected
before the old tap is broken, otherwise there
would be a break in supply and an interruption
of full-load current by the tapping switch.

 During the transition period while both taps are made, a small number of turns of the transformer’s HV winding are
short-circuited by the two taps, and a heavy current will flow through them. Arrangements are therefore made to
insert resistance temporarily into this short-circuited loop to limit the current until the tap change is complete and the
short-circuit removed. Above figure shows in principle how this is done.

VR/TG/09 40
On-load Tap Changers and their operating mechanisms are usually separate assemblies bolted to the
transformer tank, through which the tappings from all three phases are brought out into the changer
compartment.
OLTC is usually oil filled but separate from the main tank, so that the tap changer can be drained for
maintenance without having to drain the main tank.

VR/TG/09 41
Voltage & Frequency ( ) ??!!

Europe and most other countries in the world use a voltage which is twice that of the US. It is between
220 and 240 volts, whereas in Japan and in most of the Americas the voltage is between 100 and 127V.
The system of three-phase alternating current electrical generation and distribution was invented by a
19TH century creative genius named Nicola Tesla. He made many careful calculations and measurements
and found out that 60 Hz was the best frequency for alternating current (AC) power generating. He
preferred 240 volts, which put him at odds with Thomas Edison, whose direct current (DC) systems were
110 volts.
Perhaps Edison had a useful point in the safety factor of the lower voltage, but DC couldn't provide the
power to a distance that AC could.
When the German company AEG built the first European generating facility, its engineers decided to fix
the frequency at 50 Hz, because the number 60 didn't fit the metric standard unit sequence (1,2,5).
At that time, AEG had a virtual monopoly and their standard spread to the rest of the continent. In Britain,
differing frequencies proliferated, and only after World War II the 50-cycle standard was established.

VR/TG/09 42
A big mistake, however, Not only 50 Hz is 20% less effective in generation, it is 10-15% less efficient in
transmission, it requires up to 30% larger windings and magnetic core materials in transformer
construction. Electric motors are much less efficient at the lower frequency, and must also be made more
robust to handle the electrical losses and the extra heat generated. Today, only a handful of countries
(Antigua, Guyana, Peru, the Philippines, South Korea and the Leeward Islands) follow Tesla’s advice and
use the 60 Hz frequency together with a voltage of 220-240 V.
Originally Europe was 110 V too, just like Japan and the US today. It has been deemed necessary to
increase voltage to get more power with less losses and voltage drop from the same copper wire diameter.
At the time the US also wanted to change but because of the cost involved to replace all electric
appliances, they decided not to. At the time (50s-60s) the average US household already had a fridge, a
washing-machine, etc., but not in Europe.
The end result is that now, the US seems not to have evolved from the 50s and 60s, and still copes with
problems as light bulbs that burn out rather quickly when they are close to the transformer (too high a
voltage), or just the other way round: not enough voltage at the end of the line (105 to 127 volt spread !).
Note that currently all new American buildings get in fact 230 volts split in two 115 between neutral and
hot wire. Major appliances, such as ovens, are now connected to 230 volts. Americans who have
European equipment, can connect it to these outlets.
VR/TG/09 43
 Transformer Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation is a measure of how close the secondary voltage remains to the nominal value as
the load varies in amount and power factor.
The voltage drops across the internal impedance of the transformer cause the voltage variation at the
secondary terminal.
VSNL  VSFL
Voltage Regulation (VR)  pu ............... (1)
VSFL
Where
VSNL  Secondary no load Voltage
VSFL  Secondary full load Voltage

percent voltage regulation  pu voltage regulation  100

Voltage regulation can be calculated for any load but full load regulation is of the most interest.

VR/TG/09 44
Figure shows why secondary voltage varies
with load and power factor changes.

VR/TG/09 45
Voltage Regulation Calculation
Holding the secondary voltage constant for calculation, in other words Vs is the reference phasor.

The I Req voltage drop is in phase with the load current , and
The I X eq voltage drop is 90 o ahead of the load current .
The dotted line extending at the same angle as load current make the phasor
diagram in to a right angle triangle.
VR/TG/09 46
From the right angle triangle we can write:

E S  ( VS cos   I Req )  j ( VS sin   I X eq )

The same equation can be used for the PF  1 load . figure shows the phasor

Except that cos   1, and sin   0.

VR/TG/09 47
 For leading power factor the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown in the figure:

From the phasor it yields a similar equation except the opposite side is
VS sin   I X eq
A general equation can be written as :
E S  (VS cos   I Req )  j ( VS sin   I X eq ) ........ (2)
Where last term is  for lagging power factor, and  for a leading power factor.
An additional advantage of using the secondary terminal voltage as reference vector is that a Es is the primary
voltage necessary to provide the given secondary voltage.
VR/TG/09 48
PROBLEM
A 2300V/240V, 75kVA transformer has Xeq =0.07 Ω and Req = 0.02 Ω referred to the low side. Calculate
Es with a constant Vs = 240 V for load power factor of 0.8 lagging, unity, and 0.7 leading, and the voltage
regulation for each.

Solution:
To find rated current and the voltage drops across the transformer internal reactance and resistance.

kVA 75 kVA
IS    312.5 A
V 240V
I S X eq  312.5 A (0.07 )  21.88 V
I S Req  312.5 A (0.02 )  6.25 V

VR/TG/09 49
Now Es is calculated from equation (2) and VR from equation (1) for each load power factor:

PF  0.8 LAGGING
ES  (VS cos   I Req )  j ( VS sin   I X eq )
 [ 240V (0.8)  6.25V ]  j [ 240V (0.6)  21.88 ]
 198.25 V  j 165.88 V
 258.49 V
ES  VS 258.49 V  240V 18.49V
VR   
VS 240V 240V
 0.077 pu or 7.7%
Note that since
VP 2300V
a    9.583
VS 240V
For a secondary voltage of 240V with 75kVA laod at a PF  0.8 the primary
voltage must be
VP  a Es  9.583 (258.49 V )  2477 V
VR/TG/09 50
PF  1 Unity
E S  (VS cos   I Req )  j ( VS sin   I X eq )
 [ 240 V  6.25V ]  j [ 0 V  21.88 ]
 247.22 V
E S  VS 247.22 V  240V 7.22 V
VR   
VS 240V 240 V
 0.03 pu or 3 %
Note that since
VP 2300 V
a    9.583
VS 240 V
For a secondary voltage of 240V with 75kVA laod at a PF  1the primary
voltage must be
V P  a E s  9.583 (247.22 V )  2369.109 V
VR/TG/09 51
PF  0.7 LEADING
ES  (VS cos   I Req )  j ( VS sin   I X eq )
 [ 240V (0.7)  6.25V ]  j [ 240V (0.714)  21.88 ]
 229.6 V
Notice the  ve sign in the last term because the power factor is leading
E  VS 229.6V  240V  11V
VR  S  
VS 240V 240V
  0.0433 pu or  4.3%
For a secondary voltage of 229.6V with 75kVA laod at a PF  0.7 leading
the primary voltage must be
VP  a Es  9.583 (229.6V )  2200.257 V
Output voltage higher than the induced sec ondary voltage is indicated by
negative voltage regulation.
VR/TG/09 52
IMPORTANT
Impedance of the transformer in this problem was about 7%, which is high for a transformer of this
capacity and voltage. Higher impedance made the results easy to see. Normal impedance for a transformer
of this transformer and voltage is about 3 to 4%.

H.W PROBLEM
A 4200 V/280 V, 30 kVA , Delta – Star connected, 3 – phase transformer has secondary per phase Xeq = 0.072 Ω and
Req = 0.0144 Ω. It is loaded to 30 kVA with loads of PF = 0.76 lagging, PF = 1, and PF = 0.7 Leading, respectively.
For each load calculate primary voltage necessary to maintain rated secondary voltage, and the voltage regulation.

H.W PROBLEM
A 4200 V/280 V, 30 kVA , Delta – Star connected, 3 – phase transformer has secondary per phase Xeq = 0.042 Ω and Req
= 0.0144 Ω. It is loaded to 30 kVA with loads of PF = 0.76 lagging, PF = 1, and PF = 0.7 Leading, respectively. For
each load calculate primary voltage necessary to maintain rated secondary voltage, and the voltage regulation.

VR/TG/09 53
 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
 Distribution transformers are used to provide the final link with the customer. Primary voltage is between
33kV to 11kV, usually 3 – phase depending on the customer size, and secondary is normally 480Y/277V,
400Y/230V, 208Y/120V three – phase or 240/120V single – phase.

 Very large commercial and industrial customers may be fed 11kV or even higher voltages, and have a
distribution substation of their own on their property.

 Distribution transformers may be dry type, these are usually used in moderate to small commercial
installations where cost is the primary consideration.

 The most familiar distribution transformer is the pole top, (PMT) shown in figure.
 They are protected with a minimum of a primary fuse, and a lightning arrester at or near the transformer
primary.

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VR/TG/09 55
• Distribution transformers are designed to work at low efficiency at 50-70%, small size, easy in
installation, having low magnetic losses & it is not always fully loaded.

• They are used in Distribution Network so directly connected to the consumer so load fluctuations are
very high. these are not loaded fully at all time so iron losses takes place 24hr a day and cu losses
takes place based on load cycle.

• The specific weight is more i.e. (Iron weight)/(cu weight).Average loads are about only 75% of full load
and these are designed in such a way that max efficiency occurs at 75% of full load.

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 Comparison of Power & Distribution Transformer

Power Transformers are used for transmission as a step up, Therefore I2R loss can be minimized for a
given power flow. They are designed to utilize the core to maximum and will operate very much near to the
knee point of B-H curve (slightly above the knee point value).This brings down the mass of the core
enormously.
Obviously these transformers have the matched iron losses and copper losses at peak load (i.e. the
maximum efficiency point where both the losses match).

Distribution Transformers: are used for distribution as step down, and not always connected at full load.
Therefore the all day efficiency is considered while designing it. This depends on the typical load cycle for
which it has to supply.
Core is designed is such a way to take care of peak load and as well as all-day-efficiency. It is a bargain
between these two points.
 Power transformer generally operated at full load. Hence, it is designed such that copper losses are
minimal. However, a distribution transformer is always online and operated at loads less than full load for
most of time. Hence, it is designed such that core losses are minimal.

In Power Transformer the flux density is higher than the distribution transformer.

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Problem:
Suppose 4 individual feeder circuits with connected loads of 250kVA, 200kVA, 150kVA and 400kVA and
demand factors of 90%, 80%, 75% and 85% respectively. Use a diversity factor of 1.5. calculate
transformer rating for the feeder circuits.

Solution
Max demand of consumer – 1: 250 kVA  90%  225 kVA
Max demand of consumer – 2: 200 kVA  80%  160 kVA
Max demand of consumer – 3: 150 kVA  75%  112.5 kVA
Max demand of consumer – 4: 400 kVA  85%  340 kVA

Sum of individual maximum demands = 837.5 kVA

Max. demand on the feeder circuits  837.5  1.5  558 kVA

Therefore, feeder circuit would be supplied by 600kVA transformer.

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 Maximum Efficiency
The main difference between power and distribution transformer is distribution transformer is designed for
maximum efficiency at 60% to 70% load as normally doesn’t operate at full load all the time. Its load
depends on distribution demand.
Whereas power transformer is designed for maximum efficiency at 100% load as it always runs at 100% load
being near to generating station.

Distribution Transformer is used at the distribution level where voltages tend to be lower .The secondary
voltage is almost always the voltage delivered to the end consumer. Because of voltage drop limitations, it is
usually not possible to deliver that secondary voltage over great distances.

As a result, most distribution systems tend to involve many ‘clusters’ of loads fed from distribution
transformers, and this in turn means that the thermal rating of distribution transformers doesn’t have to be
very high to support the loads that they have to serve.

All day efficiency = (Output in KWhr) / (Input in KWhr) in 24 hrs which is always less than power efficiency

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VR/TG/09 60
 Plugs & Sockets Used Around the World in Domestic Environment.

TYPE A TYPE G

TYPE B TYPE H

TYPE C TYPE I
PK

TYPE D TYPE J
PK

TYPE E TYPE K

TYPE F TYPE L

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