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Additional Reading
Text book: Chap. 2.1-2.5
Coaxial cable
Twisted pair Optical Fiber
Lect-10-2: Physical Computer Networks 3
Layer
Signaling bits on a link
All links have a maximum bandwidth that limits fast data
bits can be generated. Thus, limits the maximum
capacity or data rate of the link.
Bandwidth Bandwidth
Frequency Frequency
Lect-10-2: Physical Computer Networks 4
Layer
Maximum Capacity/Data Rate
Shannon Capacity:
C B log 2 (1 S / N )
Bandwidth of link Signal-to-Noise ratio
For example:
Bandwidth of voice grade telephone lines carry
frequencies between 300-3300 Hz. Thus, its
bandwidth is approx 3 KHz
Signal-to-noise ratio is approx 30dB = 10log10(S/N)
Therefore, C = 3000*log2(1001) ~= 30kb/s
1) OneLect-10-2:
part per million equals 10-4%.
Physical Computer Networks 7
Layer
If we don’t know the sender’s clock
TTx
TX Clock
1 2 3 4
Data Missed!
1 2 3
RX Clock
TRx
Sampling points are in the middle
If the RX clock is p ppm slower than the TX clock, then: TRx TTx (1 106 p).
After
0.5
6
bit times, the RX clock will miss a bit. (The bit times sum up to
10 p 0.5 frame)
Manchester Encoding
Clock
cycle
Manchester
Encoding
Disadvantages
Fewer transitions can make clock recovery harder.
Problem:
The sender’s clock may be slower or faster than the
receiver’s clock.
E.g. 10MHz +/- 100ppm (“parts per million”).
How big should the FIFO be?
Sender B Receiver
Flip- Network Flip- Flip-
Flop Link Flop Flop
Receiver clock
slower: Elasticity
Receiver clock
Cumulative bytes
buffer overflows
faster: Elasticity
buffer
underflows
BxRate
time
Lect-10-2: Physical Computer Networks 17
Layer
Sizing an elasticity buffer
B
Transmitted bytes
Inter-packet
gap > B/2Rmax
Max
Packet
Size, Pmax Rmax
Rmin
B/2
Inter-packet
gap > B/2Rmax
Max
Packet
Size, Pmax Rmin
Rmax
B/2Rmin time
B/2R Draining rate 1st half
Rmax Rmin Rmax Rmin
max
P Pmax B / 2 To prevent underflow:
R max R
Max draining time
Lect-10-2: Physical Computer Networks 20
Layer
Sizing an elasticity buffer
Example: FDDI