TRANSISTOR BIASING

AND STABILIZATION
LESSON - 1
 C-16
EC-302 Electronic
Circuits

2
Lecture on
TRANSISTOR BIASING
&
STABILIZATION

by
P Srinivasa Rao
Lecturer in ECE
Govt. polytechnic
vijayawada

3
Objectives
 Concept of DC and AC load line
 Importance of transistor biasing
 Selection of operating point
 Factors effecting the Q point
 Stability factors and its general expression
 Thermal runaway
 Importance of Bias stabilization
 Types of biasing circuits & its explanation

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 DC Load line
When the transistor is given the bias and no signal is
applied at its input, the load line drawn at such
condition, can be understood as DC condition. Here
there will be no amplification as the signal is absent.
The circuit will be as shown below.
 By applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the
collector circuit, we get,

1. The collector current IC becomes maximum when the

collector-emitter voltage VCE = 0 then from the equation
(1) we get.

This gives the point A on the collector current axis as

shown in the figure .
.
7
 2. The collector-emitter voltage VCE is
maximum when the collector current IC= 0
then from the equation (1) we get,

The point B (OB = VCC) on the collector-emitter

voltage axis shown in the figure

By adding the points A and B, the DC load line is

drawn.
AC Load Line

What does the ac load line tell you?

 The ac load line is used to tell you the maximum
possible output voltage swing for a given
common-emitter amplifier.
 In other words, the ac load line will tell you the
maximum possible peak-to-peak output voltage
(Vpp ) from a given amplifier.

(AC Saturation Current Ic(sat) , AC Cutoff Voltage

VCE(off) )
AC load lines give the I-V relationship when AC
equivalent model is considered. But the AC
load seen by the amplifier, rc=RC||RLis different
from the DC load and hence the slope of AC
load line is different. But these two lines
intersect at the point where AC signal part
becomes 0 ie, at Q point.

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 AC Saturation Current and AC
Cutoff Voltage

IC(sat) = ICQ + (VCEQ/rC)

rC ac load line
vin vce IC
R1//R2

VCE(off) = VCEQ + ICQrC

rC = RC//RL VCE
 WHY BIASING?

If the transistor is not biased properly, it would work

inefficiently and produce distortion in output signal.

HOW A TRANSISTOR CAN BE BIASED?

A transistor is biased either with the help of battery

or associating a circuit with the transistor. The later
method is more efficient and is frequently used. The
circuit used for transistor biasing is called the
biasing circuit.

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IMPORTANCE OF TRANSISTOR BIASING

 The purpose of dc biasing of a transistor is to obtain a certain dc

collector current at a certain dc collector voltage.
 The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance
of proper collector-emitter voltage during the passage of signal is
known as “transistor biasing”.
 For fixing the operating point, it has to be seen that it provides
proper dc conditions so that the specific function of the circuit is
achieved.
 For faithful amplification a transistor must be biased properly.
 The circuits which provides transistor biasing are called as “biasing
circuits”.
 OPERATING POINT
 In order that the circuit
amplifies the signal properly, a
judicious selection of the
operating point is very
necessary.
 The zero signal values of IC
and VCE is known as operating
point or Q-point.
 The operating point of the
transistor is shown on its
output characteristics.
 It is also called as quiescent
point because it is the point on
output characteristics when the
transistor is silent i.e. in the
absence of the signal.
SELECTION OF OPERATING POINT
 The operating point can be
selected at different positions
on the d.c load line: near
saturation region, near cut-off
region or at the center, i.e. in
the active region.
 Case – 1:
If the biasing circuit is
designed to fix a Q-point at a
point , which is very near to the
saturation region, then the
collector current is clipped at
the positive half cycle as shown
in figure.
So it is not a suitable
operating point.
Case – 2:
If the biasing circuit is designed to fix a Q-point at a point R,
which is very near to the cutoff region, then the collector current is
clipped at the negative half cycle as shown in figure.
So it is not a suitable point.
Case – 3:

If the biasing circuit is designed to fix a Q-point at a point,

which is in the middle of the d.c load line, then the output collector
current is sinusoidal waveform without any clipping.
Thus point Q is the best operating point.
FACTORS EFFECTING THE Q POINT

The stability of operating point is affected by the following factors

1. Temperature dependence of Ic.
2. Individual variations.

Temperature dependence of Ic :
 Change in temperature changes reverse leakage current of the
transistor.
 This causes the collector current Ic to change, which changes the
operating point.
Individual variations
 The value of β and VBE are not exactly the same for any two
transistors even of the same type.
 When a transistor is replaced by another transistor of the same
type, the variations in transistor parameters change the Q-point.
TYPES OF BIASING CIRCUITS :

Following are the most commonly used methods for

biasing the transistors:

 Base resistor method (fixed bias)

 Base bias with collector feedback (collector feedback bias)
 Base bias with emitter feedback
 Voltage divider bias or self bias or universal bias.
 FIXED BIAS
 In the transistor amplifier circuits,
drawn so far, the biasing is done
with two power supplies VBB and
VCC.
 The VBB supply is used for biasing
the emitter-base junction and V CC
supply is used for biasing the
collector base junction.
 Therefore, both junctions are
given positive, only one power
supply is required i.e., VCC.
 Figure shows the circuit diagram
of transistor connected in CE
configuration with fixed bias.
 Here the required zero signal base
current is provided by + VCC and it
flows through RB.
Circuit analysis :

Base circuit:
Let us consider the base emitter base junction.
Applying KVL to the base circuit, we get,

……1
The supply voltage VCC is of fixed value. Once the resistance RB
is selected, IB is also fixed hence this circuit is called fixed bias
circuit.
Collector circuit:
Let us consider the collector circuit as shown in figure.
Applying KVL to the collector circuit, we get,
 ………2

Advantages:
• The biasing circuit is very simple as only one resistance RB is
required.
• It is easy to fix the Q-point anywhere in active region by simply
changing the value of RB

Limitations:
Drawbacks with the fixed bias network are:
1. The stability factor is very high.
2. Poor stabilization.
3. There are strong chances of thermal runaway.
COLLECTOR TO BASE BIAS
 The figure shows collector to
base bias circuit.
 This circuit is same as fixed
bias circuit except that the
base resistor RB is connected
between the collector and the
base of transistor.
 Thus IB flows through RB and
flows through RC.
 Here the required zero signal
base current is determined not
by VCC but by the collector base
voltage VCB.
 BASE CIRCUIT:
Let us consider the base circuit. Applying KVL to the base
circuit , we get,

………1

COLLECTOR CIRCUIT:
Applying KVL to the collector circuit, we get,

……2
SPECIAL CASE:
Substituting the value of VCE from equation (2) in equation (1), we
get,

ADVANTAGES:
 Simple circuit.
The circuit provides some stabilization of the operating point as given
below:

DISADVANTAGES:
The operating point is not perfectly stabilized against variations in
transistor parameters.
This circuit provides negative feedback through RB which reduces the
voltage gain.
Both input and output impedances get reduced due to negative
feedback.
SELF BIAS OR VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS
 The most widely used biasing
arrangement is voltage divider
bias.
 This is also known as self bias or
universal bias stabilization
circuit.
 In this method two resistors are
connected across the supply
voltage VCC.
 The name voltage divider is
derived from the fact that the
resistors R1 and R2 form voltage
divider across VCC.
 The emitter resistance RE
provides stabilization.
 The voltage across R2 forward
biases the base-emitter junction.
Circuit analysis:

Applying Thevenins theorem to the input circuit.

The voltage across R2 is the Thevenins equivalent
voltage Vth.

Fig a
To find thevenins equivalent resistance Rth consider
figure b.
Here Rth is parallel combination of R1 and R2

Fig b
Thevenins equivalent circuit is shown in
figure.

Case – 1:
Applying KVL to the base emitter circuit,
we get,

Case – 2:
Applying KVL to emitter collector circuit, we get,
Stability factor s is given by,

Advantages:
•Excellent stabilization.
•IC and VBE are independent of β
•Increase in temperature will not affect the Q – point.

Disadvantages:
•Circuit is little complicated and need thevenins theorem to do the calculation.
 What is a Bypass Capacitor?

The bypass capacitor is a capacitor that shorts AC signals to the

ground in a way that any AC noise that present on a DC signal is
removed producing a much cleaner and pure DC signal. A bypass
capacitor basically bypasses AC noise that may be on a DC signal,
filtering out of AC so that a clean, pure DC signal goes through
without several AC ripples.
Importance of Emitter Bypass Capacitor (C E)

When an emitter resistance is added in a CE (Common

Emitter) amplifier, its voltage gain is reduced, but the
input impedance increases. Whenever bypass
capacitor is connected in parallel with an emitter
resistance, the voltage gain of CE amplifier increases.
If the bypass capacitor is removed, an extreme
degeneration is produced in the amplifier circuit and
the voltage gain will be reduced.
 Bias compensation techniques

• Diode compensation
• Thermistor compensation
• Sensistor compensation
Diode Compensation for Instability

There are two types of diode compensation

methods. They are −

 Diode compensation for instability due to

VBE variation
 Diode compensation for instability due to
ICO variation
Diode Compensation for Instability due to VBE Variation

 In a Silicon transistor, the changes in the

value of VBE results in the changes in IC. A
diode can be employed in the emitter circuit
in order to compensate the variations in VBE or
ICO. As the diode and transistor used are of
same material, the voltage VD across the
diode has same temperature coefficient as
VBE of the transistor.
The following figure shows self-bias with
stabilization and compensation.
 The diode D is forward biased by the source
VDD and the resistor RD. The variation in VBE with
temperature is same as the variation in VD with
temperature, hence the quantity (VBE – VD) remains
constant. So the current IC remains constant in
spite of the variation in VBE.
Diode Compensation for Instability due to ICO Variation

The following figure shows the circuit diagram of a

transistor amplifier with diode D used for
compensation of variation in ICO.
So, the reverse saturation current IO of the diode will
increase with temperature at the same rate as the
transistor collector saturation current ICO.
I=(VCC−VBE)/R≅VCC/ R=Constant
The diode D is reverse biased by VBE and the current through it is the
reverse saturation current IO.
Now the base current is, IB=I−I O

Substituting the above value in the expression for collector current.

IC=β(I−I O)+(1+β)I CO

If β ≫ 1, IC=βI−βI O+ βI CO

I is almost constant and if IO of diode and ICO of transistor track each
other over the operating temperature range, then IC remains
constant.
Thermistor Compensation

Thermistor is a temperature sensitive device. It has negative

temperature coefficient. The resistance of a thermistor
increases when the temperature decreases and it decreases
when the temperature increases.
In an amplifier circuit, the changes that occur in ICO, VBE and β with
temperature, increases the collector current. Thermistor is employed to
minimize the increase in collector current. As the temperature increases,
the resistance RT of thermistor decreases, which increases the current
through it and the resistor RE. Now, the voltage developed across
RE increases, which reverse biases the emitter junction. This reverse bias is
so high that the effect of resistors R1 and R2 providing forward bias also
gets reduced. This action reduces the rise in collector current.

Thus the temperature sensitivity of thermistor compensates the increase in

collector current, occurred due to temperature.
Explanation:

Thus the original increase in I C is compensated and Q- Point is maintain

Sensistor compensation technique:
Sensistors have a positive temperature co-efficient ie.
Its resistance increase with increase in temperature as
shown.
Thus the variation in I C is compensated.
H parameter equivalent circuit:
All the transistor amplifiers are two port networks having two voltages and
two currents. The positive directions of voltages and currents are shown in 
fig. 1.

Out of four quantities two are independent and two are dependent. If the
input current i1 and output voltage v2 are taken independent then other two
quantities i2 and v1 can be expressed in terms of i1 and V2.

The equations can be written as

where h11, h12, h21 and h22 are called h-parameters.

where h11, h12, h21 and h22 are called h-parameters.

 = hi = input impedance with output short circuit to ac.

=hr = fraction of output voltage at input with input

open circuited or reverse voltage gain with input open
circuited to ac (dimensions).

= hf = negative of current gain with output short

circuited to ac.

The current entering the load is negative of I2. This is also known as
forward short circuit current gain.

= ho = output admittance with input open circuited to ac.

Using two equations the generalized model of the amplifier can be drawn as
shown in fig. 2.
 Transistor Hybrid Model
Use of h – parameters to describe a transistor have the following advantages:
•h – parameters are real numbers up to radio frequencies .
•They are easy to measure
•They can be determined from the transistor static characteristics curves.
•They are convenient to use in circuit analysis and design.
•Easily convert able from one configuration to other.
•Readily supplied by manufactories.
Hybrid Model and Equations for the transistor in three different
configurations are are given below.
(i) Input Impedance:

Now, i2= h21i1+ h22v2 in terms of h parameters, and from the figure i 2=
-v2/rL. So,
 If either h12 or rL is very small, the second term in exp. (iii) can be neglected
and input impedance becomes :
(ii) Current gain: referring to the figure, the current gain Ai of the circuit is
given by:
(iii) voltage gain: Referring to the figure again, the voltage gain of the circuit
is given by: