PSIKOLOGI BELAJAR

Ringkasan Materi Pasca UTS

TEORI GESTALT
• Gestalt  Pola atau Konfigurasi
• Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka
• Cognitive Perspective (Persepsi Visual)  bagaimana manusia
memperoleh makna dari stimulus yang ada di sekitarnya
• Prinsip Gestalt  how humans typically see objects by grouping
similar elements, recognizing patterns and simplifying complex
images.
TEORI GESTALT
Konsep Utama

1) Teori Medan (Field Theory)  perilaku seseorang berkaitan dengan

lingkungan/medan tempat ia berada
2) Nature VS Nurture  Otak berperan aktif mengorganisasi dan
memaknai informasi sensoris yang ada  ”sifat alami” otak
3) Hukum Pragnanz (Law of Pragnanz) sistem bagaimana otak kita
memaknai suatu bentuk
TEORI KOGNITIF PIAGET
KONSEP UTAMA
• Schemas --> "a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component
actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning."
• Assimilation --> Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or
situation
• Accomodation --> This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not
work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation
• Equilibrium --> Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new
information through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium
occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation)
will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation).
TEORI KOGNITIF PIAGET
TEORI KOGNITIF PIAGET
Tahap-Tahap Perkembangan
• Sensorimotor (birth to age 2)
• Preoperational (from age 2 to age 7)
• Concrete operational (from age 7 to age 11)
• Formal operational (age 11+ - adolescence and adulthood)

Discovery learning –> the idea that children learn best through doing
and actively exploring
EDWARD C. TOLMAN
1) Molar Behavior
Perilaku memiliki tujuan (meaningful activity); pola perilaku-->
Gestalten Behavior (dilihat secara menyeluruh)
Ex: tikus lari di maze, kucing kabur dari puzzle box, seseorang bicara di
telp
2) Purposive Behaviourism
• Perilaku diarahkan untuk mendapatkan tujuan
EDWARD C. TOLMAN
Konsep Utama
• Cognitive map --> a “broad” picture of the environment which develops by
environmental exploration
• Vicarious trial and error (VTE) --> membuat berbagai mental strategi sebelum
menampilkan respon
• Learning VS Perform --> Learning then was different from performance. The
organism knows (learns) about the environment, but acts (performs) on it, only
when the need (reinforcement) arises.
• Latent Learning --> proses belajar yang tidak membutuhkan motivasi atau
reinforcement; reinforcement tidak mempengaruhi proses belajar, tetapi
berdampak pada performa (proses belajar sudah terjadi saat kegiatan belajar itu
sendiri, tapi baru muncul setelah ada motivasi)
• Latent Extinction --> decrease in responses which occur as a result of non-
reinforced experience in the goal box
EDWARD C. TOLMAN
• MacCorquodale and Meehl --> teori S1-R1-S2 --> what leads to what, e.g., seeing a
friend --> saying “hello” --> seeing your friend smile.
• 6 Jenis Belajar
1. Cathexes --> mengasosiasikan objek ttt dengan keadaan dorongan tertentu
2. Equivalence beliefs --> subtujuan punya efek yang sama dengan tujuan
3. Field Expectancies --> sesuatu akan menimbulkan sesuatu yang lain
4. Field-Cognition Modes --> strategi/ cara utk menangani masalah
5. Drive discriminations --> org dapat menentukan keadaan dorongan mereka
sendiri
6. Motor pattern --> based on an association of stimuli and movements
ALBERT BANDURA: TEORI BELAJAR
SOSIAL
• In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist
learning theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
However, he adds two important ideas:
1) Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.
2) Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of
observational learning.

Observational Learning --> Children observe the people around them

behaving in various ways. This is illustrated during the famous Bobo doll
experiment.
ALBERT BANDURA: TEORI BELAJAR
SOSIAL
• First, the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it
perceives as similar to itself. Consequently, it is more likely to imitate
behavior modeled by people of the same gender.
• Second, the people around the child will respond to the behavior it
imitates with either reinforcement or punishment.
• Third, the child will also take into account of what happens to other
people when deciding whether or not to copy someone’s actions
• SLT is often described as the ‘bridge’ between traditional learning
theory (i.e., behaviorism) and the cognitive approach. This is because
it focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning.
ALBERT BANDURA: TEORI BELAJAR
SOSIAL
• Imitation
• Vicarious reinforcement --> penguatan tidak langsung
• Vicarious punishment --> hukuman tidak langsung
• Delayed modelling yakni kemampuan untuk menggunakan informasi
lama setelah informasi itu diamati.
ALBERT BANDURA: TEORI BELAJAR
SOSIAL
Konsep-konsep Utama Teori Belajar Observasional
• There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura:
• Attention —The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behavior. For a
behavior to be imitated, it has to grab our attention.
• Retention — How well the behavior is remembered.
• Reproduction — This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has
just demonstrated.
• Motivation — The will to perform the behavior. The rewards and punishment
that follow a behavior will be considered by the observer. If the perceived
rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if there are any), then the behavior will be
more likely to be imitated by the observer. If the vicarious reinforcement is not
seen to be important enough to the observer, then they will not imitate the
behavior.
ALBERT BANDURA: TEORI BELAJAR
SOSIAL
• Reciprocal determinism (P, B, E)
• is a model composed of three factors that influence behavior: the
environment, the individual, and the behavior itself. According to this theory,
an individual's behavior influences and is influenced by both the social world
and personal characteristics.
• This model suggests that these three components are continually interacting
with one another. Just as the environment exerts an influence on individual
behavior, a person's actions also play a part in influencing the environment.
• For Example: A child who doesn't like school may act out in class, resulting in
negative attention from classmates and teachers. The teachers are forced to
alter the school environment for this child (and theoretically others like him).
DONALD OLDING HEBB
• The Organization of Behavior --> synaptic change and cell assemblies
to explain the neural events underlying behavior
• Hebbian theory --> When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite
cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some
growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells
such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased.
• Hebb's Law --> "Neurons that fire together wire together."
DONALD OLDING HEBB
Konsep Utama
• Restricted Environment
• Enriched Environment
• Cell assembly --> The combination of neurons which could be grouped together
as one processing unit
• Phase Sequence --> rangkaian dari beberapa cell assembly
• Arousal Theory --> hubungan antara level stimulasi dengan pelaksanaan fungsi
kognitif
• Sensory deprivation --> Jika kejadian indrawi yang biasanya terjadi dalam
kehidupan seseorang mendadak tidak terjadi lagi, maka akibatnya adalah
munculnya kewaspadaan ekstrem dan menggelisahkan yang dirasakan sebagai
stres, takut, atau disorientasi.
DONALD OLDING HEBB
• Rasa Takut --> Takut terjadi ketika suatu objek dilihat sebagai sesuatu
yang cukup familier dalam hal tertentu sehingga membangkitkan
proses persepsi yang biasa, namun dalam hal objek itu lain
menimbulkan proses yang tidak kompatibel
• Short term and Long term memory
• Neuroplasticity (neuroplastisitas) --> istilah untuk mendeskripsikan
kemampuan otak untuk mereorganisasi atau memodifikasi koneksi-
koneksinya sebagai hasil dari pengalaman, dan temuan dari beberapa
laboratorium menunjukkan bahwa plastisitas otak dipertahankan
selama usia dewasa
ROBERT C. BOLLES DAN PSIKOLOGI
EVOLUSIONER
Teori Darwin dan Psikologi Evolusioner
--> Natural Selection and Adaptations
• First, there is natural variability within a species.
• Second, only some individual differences are heritable.
• Third (Buss et al., 1988):”Organisms with particular heritable
attributes produce more offspring, on average, than those lacking
these attributes.”
ROBERT C. BOLLES DAN PSIKOLOGI
EVOLUSIONER
• Konsep Utama
1. Expectancies --> organisme belajar satu jenis kejadian yang mendahului kejadian
lainnya. Learning involves the development of expectancies. Ex : Seeing lightning and
expecting thunder exemplifies a S-S, expectancy; Expecting to hear the sound of a
bell when a doorbell is pressed exemplifies a R-S expectancy.
2. Innate Predispositions --> Bolles menekankan pada ekspektasi S-S dan R-S bawaan
(innate) dalam analisisnya terhadap perilaku
3. Motivation Restricts Response Flexibility --> R-S expectancies are more limited
because motivation produces response bias.
4. Argumen Tempat --> pemahaman atas belajar harus diiringi dengan pemahaman
atas sejarah evolusi organisme