STATISTICS

MERVIN AMBA OSIC, Ph.D

DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
UM Tagum College
• Statistics is a branch of Social
Science which deals with the
collection, tabulation,
presentation, analysis and
interpretation of numerical or
quantitative data.
 Overview
A common goal of surveys and other data collecting
tools is to collect data from a smaller part of a larger
group so we can learn something about the larger
group.

In this section we will look at some of ways to

describe data.
 The Study of how to:

Collect
Organize
Analyze
& interpret
numerical
information

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Definitions

 Data
observations (such as measurements,
genders, survey responses) that have
been collected.

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Definitions

 Statistics
a collection of methods for planning
experiments, obtaining data, and then
then organizing, summarizing,
presenting, analyzing, interpreting, and
drawing conclusions based on the
data.
Definitions
Population
the complete collection of all
elements (scores, people,
measurements, and so on) to be
studied. The collection is complete
in the sense that it includes all
subjects to be studied.

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Definitions
Census
the collection of data from every
member of the population.

Sample
a sub-collection of elements drawn
from a population.

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 Key Concepts
 Sample data must be collected in an
appropriate way, such as through a
process of random selection.
 If sample data are not collected in an
appropriate way, the data may be
so completely useless that no
amount of statistical torturing can
salvage them.

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Definitions
 Parameter
a numerical measurement
describing some
characteristic of a population

population

parameter
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 Definitions

Statistic
a numerical measurement
describing some characteristic of a
sample.
sample

statistic
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 Definitions

Quantitative data
numbers representing counts or
measurements.
Example: weights of supermodels.

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 Definitions
Qualitative (or categorical or
attribute) data
can be separated into different categories that
are distinguished by some nonnumeric
characteristics.
Example: genders (male/female) of
professional athletes.

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 Working with
Quantitative Data

Quantitative data can further

be distinguished between
discrete and continuous types.

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 Definitions
Discrete
data result when the number of possible
values is either a finite number or a
‘countable’ number of possible values.
0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

Example: The number of eggs that hens

lay.

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 Definitions
Continuous
(numerical) data result from infinitely many possible
values that correspond to some continuous scale
that covers a range of values without gaps,
interruptions, or jumps.
2 3

Example: The amount of milk that a cow produces;

e.g. 2.343115 gallons per day.

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 Levels of Measurement

Another way to classify data is

to use use levels of
measurement. Four of these
levels are discussed in the
following slides.

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 Definitions
 nominal level of
measurement
characterized by data that consist of
names, labels, or categories only. The
data cannot be arranged in an ordering
scheme (such as low to high)

Example: survey responses yes, no,

undecided
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 Definitions
 ordinal level of measurement
involves data that may be arranged in
some order, but differences between
data values either cannot be determined
or are meaningless

Example: Course grades A, B, C, D, or F

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 Definitions
 interval level of measurement
like the ordinal level, with the additional property that
the difference between any two data values is
meaningful. However, there is no natural zero
starting point (where none of the quantity is
present)

Example: Years 1000, 2000, 1776, and 1492

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 Definitions
 ratio level of measurement
the interval level modified to include the
natural zero starting point (where zero
indicates that none of the quantity is
present). For values at this level,
differences and ratios are meaningful.

Example: Prices of college textbooks ($0

represents no cost)
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 Summary -
Levels of Measurement

 Nominal - categories only

 Ordinal - categories with some order
 Interval - differences but no natural
starting point
 Ratio - differences and a natural starting
point

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 Recap

In Sections 1-1 and 1-2 we have looked at:

Basic definitions and terms describing data

 Parameters versus statistics
 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative)
 Levels of measurement

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 Major Points

 If sample data are not collected in an

appropriate way, the data may be so
completely useless that no
amount of statistical tutoring can salvage
them.

 Randomness typically plays a critical

role in determining which data to
collect.
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 Definitions
 Observational Study
observing and measuring specific
characteristics without attempting to modify
the subjects being studied

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 Definitions

 Experiment
apply some treatment and then observe its
effects on the subjects

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 Definitions
 Cross Sectional Study
Data are observed, measured, and
collected at one point in time.

 Retrospective (or Case Control) Study

Data are collected from the past by going
back in time.
 Prospective (or Longitudinal or Cohort)
Study
Data are collected in the future from
groups (called cohorts) sharing common
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 Definitions
 Confounding
occurs in an experiment when the
experimenter is not able to distinguish
between the effects of different factors

Try to plan the experiment so confounding does not

occur!

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 Controlling Effects
of Variables
 Blinding

subject does not know he or she is

receiving a treatment or placebo
 Blocks

groups of subjects with similar

characteristics
 Completely Randomized Experimental Design
subjects are put into blocks through a
process of random selection
 Rigorously Controlled Design
subjects are very carefully chosen
 Replication and
Sample Size
 Replication
repetition of an experiment when there are
enough subjects to recognize the differences in
different treatments
 Sample Size
use a sample size that is large enough to see
the true nature of any effects and obtain that
sample using an appropriate method, such as
one based on randomness
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 Definitions
 Random Sample
members of the population are selected in
such a way that each individual member has
an equal chance of being selected
Simple Random Sample (of size
n)
subjects selected in such a way that
everypossible sample of the same size n has
the same chance of being chosen
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 Random Sampling
selection so that each has an
equal chance of being selected

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 Systematic Sampling
Select some starting point and then
select every K th element in the population

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Convenience Sampling
use results that are easy to get

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 Stratified Sampling
subdivide the population into at
least two different subgroups that share the same
characteristics, then draw a sample from each
subgroup (or stratum)

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 Cluster Sampling
divide the population into sections
(or clusters); randomly select some of those clusters;
choose all members from selected clusters

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Methods of Sampling

 Random
 Systematic
 Convenience
 Stratified
 Cluster

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 Definitions
 Sampling Error
the difference between a sample result and the
true population result; such an error results from
chance sample fluctuations

 Nonsampling Error
sample data that are incorrectly collected,
recorded, or analyzed (such as by selecting a
biased sample, using a defective instrument, or
copying the data incorrectly)

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 Recap

In this section we have looked at:

 Types of studies and experiments
 Controlling the effects of variables
 Randomization
 Types of sampling
 Sampling Errors

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POPULATION – is a set of people or objects you
are interested in for a particular study.
A SAMPLE – is a collection of elements taken from
a population.
SLOVIN’S FORMULA

n = N ⁄1 + Ne2
Where: n = sample size
N = population

e = margin of error
SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
1. Random Sampling – is a
process where every member
of a population has an equal
chance of being selected.
2. Stratified Random
Sampling – the population is
divided into groups or strata.
Methods used in the Collection of Data

1. Informal or Questionnaire Method

2. Formal or Interview Method
3. Registration Method
4. Observation Method
5. Experimentation Method
• Determine the sample size to be
considered for research work that will
involve a population of 6,000 students
if the desired margin of error is:

1.10% 4. 2%

2. 1% 5. 5%

3. 7%
Frequency Distributions

After collecting data, the first task for a

researcher is to organize and simplify the
data so that it is possible to get a general
overview of the results.
This is the goal of descriptive statistical
techniques.
One method for simplifying and organizing
data is to construct a frequency
distribution.

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Frequency Distributions (cont.)

A frequency distribution is an
organized tabulation showing exactly
how many individuals are located in
each category on the scale of
measurement. A frequency
distribution presents an organized
picture of the entire set of scores, and
it shows where each individual is
located relative to others in the
distribution. 46
 STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING
FREQUENCY TABLE
1. Find the range, R, using the formula:
R = Highest Score – Lowest Score
2. Compute for the number of intervals, n, by
using the formula:
n = 1 + 3.322log N
3. Compute for the class size, I, using the formula:
i = R/n
4. Using the lowest score as lower limit, start
constructing the frequency table
5. Find Class Boundaries
6. . Represent each score by a tally
The given data below represents the
scores of 40 students in a 70 item test in
Statistics 101.

27 32 30 25 27 39 42 52
28 44 25 54 26 37 64 58
29 36 38 49 47 57 39 40
30 32 28 50 61 55 62 37
31 70 27 45 27 65 47 25

Construct a frequency distribution table

Histograms

In a histogram, a bar is centered

above each score (or class
interval) so that the height of the
bar corresponds to the frequency
and the width extends to the real
limits, so that adjacent bars
touch.

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Polygons

In a polygon, a dot is centered above

each score so that the height of the
dot corresponds to the frequency.
The dots are then connected by
straight lines. An additional line is
drawn at each end to bring the graph
back to a zero frequency.

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Bar graphs

• When the score categories (X

values) are measurements from a
nominal or an ordinal scale, the
graph should be a bar graph.
• A bar graph is just like a histogram
except that gaps or spaces are left
between adjacent bars.

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Relative frequency

• Many populations are so large that it is

impossible to know the exact number of
individuals (frequency) for any specific
category.
• In these situations, population distributions can
be shown using relative frequency instead of
the absolute number of individuals for each
category.

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