CELL STRUCTURE AND

CELL ORGANISATION
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

 Living component in cell- protoplasm

 Protoplasm= cytoplasm+ nucleus
 - surrounded by plasma membrane
 Cell wall- in plant cells only
 Organelles: structures in cytoplasm.
 - hv specific functions: enable cell to
function as a unit of life
CELLULAR COMPONENTS
 CELL MEMBRANE
 Refers to all membranes inside cells
 Plasma membrane:
 membrane at the surface that encloses content
of the cell
 Made up of proteins and phospholipids
 Forms a boundary – separates the content of a
cell from the outer membrane
 Semi-permeable: act as a selective barrier.
 Regulates the movement of substances into and
out of the cytoplasm
 CELL WALL

 Rigid outer layer – surrounds the plasma

membrane of plant cells
 Composed of cellulose (tough and fibrous
carbohydrate)
 Permeable to all fluids: have tiny pores- allow
substances to move freely into and out of the
cell
 Gives shape , provide mechanical support
 Protects the plant cell from rupturing (due to
excessive intake of H2O)
 CYTOPLASM

 Region between nucleus and plasma membrane

 Consists of a jelly-like matrix ( contains
organelles)
 Contains organic and inorganic substances
 Functions:
- Act as a medium for biochemical reaction
- Provide substances obtained from external
environment to the organelles
 NUCLEUS

 A large, dense, spherical organelle

 Enclosed by a nuclear membrane
 Contains nucleoplasm, nucleolus ( a dark
spherical structure)
 Chromatin: within the nucleus ( a form of
chromosome b4 divide)
 Chromosomes: carry genetic information-
determines the characteristics and functions of a
cell
 Primary importance: controls all the
activities in the cell
 Ex: synthesis of proteins- regulated by the
coded information contained in the
chromosomes
- VACUOLE

 Is a fluid-filled sac (pundi) : surrounded by

tonoplast, a semi-permeable membrane
 Fluid in a vacuole = cell sap
 Typical plant cell- has a large central vacuole,
young plant- smaller vacuole
 Freshwater organisms- have contractile
vacuole and food vacuole
 Contractile vacuole: help to regulate water
balance in the organism (unicell.organism)
 Food vacuole: storage place in a cell
 Cell sap: contains water, organic acids,
sugars, amino acids, mineral salts, waste
substances, pigments, metabolic by-
product
 Cell sap in vacuole- supports herbaceous
plants from wilting
 MITOCHONDRIA

 Appear as small spherical or cylindrical-

shaped organelles
 Involved in cellular respiration- releases
energy when food substances (glucose)
are broken down
 Energy released: stored in the form of
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
 RIBOSOMES

 Compact spherical organelles- either:

 - attached to the surface of rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER)
 - suspended freely in cytoplasm
 Each: consists of 2 subunits- small and large
that comprises a type of RNA and protein
 Function: synthesis of protein (ex: enzyme)
 Use information carried by the chromosomes to
make proteins
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

 Consists of a network of folded membranes –

forming interconnected (bersmbgan) tubules or
sacs
 Membrane: physically continuous with nuclear
membrane

 Types:
- Rough ER
- Smooth ER
 RER:
- has ribosomes attached to its surface
- Function: transports proteins made by
ribosomes
- Proteins depart from RER- enclosed in
vesicles- transported to another cell

 SER:
- does not hv ribosomes attached to its surface
- Function: site of important metabolic reaction
(ex: synthesis of lipids & detoxification of drugs
and poisons).
 GOLGI APPARATUS

 Consists of a stack (timbunan/longgokan) of

flattened membranous sacs.
 Functions:
- as a processing, packaging, and
transporting centre of carbohydrates, proteins,
phospholipids, glycoproteins
 - transport vesicles carrying products (ex:
proteins) – from ER fuse with GA, empty the
contents into membranous space
 Proteins- modified, sort and package into
vesicles.
 Vesicles containing products bud off from
GA membrane, travel to:
- other part of cell or
- plasma membrane
 Vesicles fuse with plasma membrane,
releasing contents outside the cell.
 LYSOSOMES

 Small, spherical sacs surrounded by a single

membrane
 Contain hydrolytic enzymes (digestive enzyme)
 Functions:
- as digestive compartments in a cell
- hydrolytic enzymes digest or break down
complex organic molecules such as proteins,
nucleic acids, polysaccharides, lipids.
 In unicellular organisms- lysosomes fuse with
food vacoules and release their enzymes into
these vacoules
 The breakdown products- absorbed into the
cytoplasm
 Hydrolytic enzymes also break down unwanted
structures
 CENTRIOLES

 A pair of small cylindrical structures

 Located outside nucleus
 Composed of a complex arrangement of
microtubules
 Form spindle fibres during cell division (in
animal cells only)
 CHLOROPLAST

 Lens- shaped
 Membranous structures: contain green
pigment chlorophyll
 Chlorophyll- traps sunlight and converts
light energy into chemical energy
 Chlorophyll- gives green colour to plants
 DENSITY OF ORGANELLES IN SPECIFIC
CELLS
 Based on 2 factors:
 i) activity level of an organism
 ii) specific function of particular cell

 Plant cell:
 - density of chloroplasts in palisade mesophyll
cells of leaves
 - used to trap sunlight to synthesize sugar during
photosynthesis
 - each cell: at least 100 chloroplasts
 Animal cell:
 - high mitochondria densities:
 i) sperm cells
 - packed with mitochondria in the middle piece
to provide sufficient energy for the motive power
of tails
 - swim by beating their tails towards ovum,
fertilise it

 Other example:
 ii) flight muscle cells
 iii) heart muscle cells
ii) Pancreatic cells
- Synthesise and secrete enzymes and
hormones
iii) Cells in salivary glands
- Synthesise and secrete enzymes
iv) Intestinal and stomach epithelium
- Secretes digestive enzymes

- Large amount of RER and Golgi apparatus

v) Interstitial cells in testes and adrenal
glands
- Synthesise and secrete steroids and
hormones
vi) Liver cells
- Carbohydrate metabolism, detoxification of
drugs and poisons

-Large amount of SER

vi) Goblet cells in intestinal epithelium and
respiratory tract
- Secrete mucus

vii) Cells in the root cap

- Secrete a slimy lubricant that helps the
movement of roots between soil particles

- Large amount of Golgi apparatus

 CELL ORGANISATION

 UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS

- small, simple
- can feed, respire, excrete, move,respond
to stimuli, reproduce, grow
- do not have organs, systems
Amoeba sp.
 Example: Amoeba sp.

 free-living in freshwater environments, soil

 Enclosed by plasma membrane
 Changing shape when it meets obstacles,
respond to stimuli
 Adverse stimuli: acidic water, bright light-
Amoeba sp. retreat
 Moves by extending temporary pseudopodia /
‘false feet’ and anchoring the tips on the ground
 Then, followed by the flow of cytoplasm
 2 layers of cytoplasm:
- Outer layer: ectoplasm
- Inner layer: endoplasm
 Pseudopodia- feeding
 Engulfs food by phagocytosis
 Holozoic organism: feed on microscopic
organism
 Extending the pseudopodia- enclose the food,
packaged in a food vacuole
 Food vacuole fuse with lysosome
 Food- digested by lysozyme
 Nutrients absorbed into the cytoplasm
 Exchange of gases, nutrients, waste
substances- through plasma membrane:
diffusion

 Water diffuses into the cell by osmosis and fill

the contractile vacuole

 Contractile vacuole: involve in

osmoregulation

 Vacuole filled to a max.size, contractile vacuole

contracts to expel its content
 Reproduce by:
 - binary fission
 - spores formation (if env.not condusive)

 i) Binary fission
ii) Spore formation

- Under unfavorable condition

- Ex: dry, insufficient food
- When condition favorable: spores
germinate
Paramecium sp.
 CELL SPECIALISATION IN MULTICELLULAR
ORGANISMS

 Zygote 2-cell 4-cell 8-cell embryo

White Nerve cell Sperm cell

blood cell

Red blood cell

 CELL ORGANISATION IN MULTICELLULAR
ORGANISMS

 Tissue: a group of similar cells performing a

particular function
 Organ: a group of tissues that performs a
specialised function
 Several organs- found within a system
 All systems work together to make up an
organism

 Cells Tissue Organ System Multicellular organism

 CELL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS

 TISSUES

- Epithelial tissue
- Muscle tissue
- Nerve tissue
- Connective tissue
 Epithelial Tissue

 One or more layers of cells

 Tightly interconnected and form a continuous
layer over body surfaces (skin and mouth
area) and inner lining of cavities (digestive
tract and lungs).
 some undergo changes to form glands
(exocrine glands)
 ET on skin: forms a protective barrier against
infections, mechanical injuries, dehydration
 ET in the lining of human intestines: form
mucus-secreting goblet cells that secrete mucus
into digestive tract

 ET that lines trachea: consists of elongated cells

with hair-like projections called cilia
 Muscle Tissue

 Most abundant tissue

 Composed of cells called muscles fibres
 3 types:
- Smooth muscle
- Cardiac muscle
- Skeletal muscle
 i) Smooth muscle
- found in intestines, blood vessels, urinary,
reproductive tract
- contraction and relaxation: involuntary body
activities. Ex: peristaltic movement along the
digestive tract
- contract more slowly than skeletal muscle,but
for a longer period of time
 ii) Cardiac muscle
 - found in the walls of heart
 - contract to pump blood to
all parts of the body
 - involuntary

 iii) Skeletal muscle

 - found in arms and legs
 - involve in voluntary movements
 - contract and relax to move
the bones
 Nerve Tissue

 Composed of neurones or nerve cells

 Each neurone: consists of a cell body and nerve
fibres (dendrites and axons)
 Neurones: specialised to stimuli and transmit
electrical signals - nerve impulses to muscles or
glands
 Controls and coordinate activities of the body
 Connective Tissue

 Consists of various types of cells and fibres

separated by an extracellular matrix
 Widely distributed

 i) Loose connective tissue

 - most widespread CT
 - binds epithelia to underlying
tissues and holds organs in place
 ii) Dense fibrous connective tissue
 - contain a large no.of collagenous fibres-
packed closely together
 - found in tendons (muscle-bone), and ligaments
(bone-bone)

 iii) Cartilage
 - strong and flexible
 - provides support to the nose, ears, covers the
ends of bones at joints
 Made up the discs between vertebrae - act as
cushions to absorb pressure
 iv) Bone
 - consists of cells embedded in a matrix of
collagen – hardened by mineral deposits
 - harder than cartilage
 - provides protection to organs and support the
body

 v) Blood cells
 - produced in bone marrow, located at the end of
long bones
 - regulating transporting, protective
 vi) Adipose tissue
 - consists of tightly packed cells : stores fat
 - found in the dermis of the skin, and around
major organs
 - acts as an energy reserve, provides insulation
and protection
 ORGANS
 - an organ: 2 or more types of tissues working
together to form a particular function
 - Ex: skin, lungs, eyes

 i) Skin
 - covers the body
 - acts as a barrier against infection, physical
trauma, water loss
 - consists of various types of tissues joined
together
 2 layers: epidermis and dermis
 A) Epidermis:
 - outer layer of the skin
 - made up of epithelial tissues
 - epithelial cells-undergo cell division

 B) Dermis:
 - composed of CT, NT, ET, MT
 Blood- supplied through a network of blood
capillaries

 Sensory nerve endings:

- scattered throughout dermis and epidermis
- act as receptors- transmit nerve impulses for
pressure, temperature, touch and pain

 Specialised epithelial cells in the skin: form

structures such as hair follicles that produce
hair, sweat glands that secrete sweat, oil
glands that secrete sebum
SYSTEMS

 - each system consists of several organs that

work together to perform a common function
 - 11 major systems
 - must be coordinated for the organism to
survive
 An organ may belong to one system. Example:
the pancreas secretes hormones and pancreatic
huice. The pancreas is a part of both the
endocrine system and digestive system
 All systems- combine to form a multicellular
organism
 i) NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Major organs/tissues:
- brain, spinal cord, nerves
 Functions:
- detects stimuli, formulates
responses, transmits nerve
impulses and integrates the
activities of other systems.
- controls physiological
processes together with endocrine system
 ii) SKELETAL SYSTEM

 Major organs/tissues
- bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments
 Functions:
- supports the body, provides sites for
attachment of muscles, and protection for
internal organs
 iii) CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

 Major organs/tissues:
- heart, blood vessels, blood

 Functions:
- deliver nutrients, respiratory gases and
hormones to body cells
- transport waste products to excretory
organs
 iv) DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

 Major organs
- mouth, pharynx, oesophagus,
stomach, liver, pancreas,
small and large intestines,
rectum, anus
 Functions:
- ingests and digest food, absorbs
nutrients for use by the body
and eliminates undigested material
 v) RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Major organs:
- nose, trachea, lungs
 Functions:
- provides surface area for gaseous
exchange between blood and
external environment
- allow oxygen intake and carbon
dioxide elimination
 vi) EXCRETORY SYSTEM

 Major organs:
- Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder,
urethra, skin, lungs
 Functions:
- removes metabolic waste products such as
urea and carbon dioxide
-regulates the osmotic balance of
the blood
 vii) REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 Major organs/tissues:
- male: testes, seminal vesicles,
penis
- female: ovaries, Fallopian tubes,
uterus, cervix, vagina
 Functions:
- Male: produces sperms and male hormones
- Female: Produces ova, nurtures
developing foetuses and
produces female hormones
 viii) MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 Major organs/tissues:
- skeletal muscles, smooth muscles,
cardiac muscles
 Functions:
- contraction of muscles enables body
movements
 ix) INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

 Major organs:
- skin

 Functions:
- physically separates the body
from the external environment
- protects the body against mechanical
injuries, microbial infection and
dehydration
 x) ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 Major organs:
- glands such as pituitary,
thyroid, adrenal and pancreas,
which secrete hormones

 Functions:
- coordinates body activities
together with the nervous system
 xi) LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

 Major organs:
- lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,
bone marrow, thymus

 Functions:
- defends the body against infections
- returns excess tissue fluid to the
blood
 CELL ORGANISATION IN PLANTS
 TISSUES
 - Meristematic tissues
 - Permanent tissues
 i) Meristematic tissues
 - consists of small cells which have thin walls,
large nuclei, dense cytoplasm, no vacuoles
 - young, actively dividing cells, have not
undergone differentiation
 - located at the tips of roots and the buds of
shoots
 ii) Permanent tissues
 - mature tissues that have undergone
differentiation
 - 3 types: Epidermal tissues, ground tissues,
vascular tissues
 a) Epidermal tissues
 - the outermost layer that covers the stems,
leaves, roots of young plants
 - most epidermal cells- flat and have large
vacuoles
 - walls of epidermal cells – exposed to air,
covered with a waxy waterproof coating : cuticle
 -Cuticle : minimises water loss through
evaporation, protects plants from mechanical
injury, prevents invasion of diseases
 Root epidermal cells: have long projections
called root hairs – to increase the surface area
for water absorption
 Guard cells : specialised epidermal cells
containing chloroplasts
 - Function: control the opening and closing of
stomata
 b) Ground tissue
 consists of parenchyma tissue, collenchyma
tissue, sclerenchyma tissue
 - all these tissues:
form the bulk of plant

 Parenchyma cells:
 - less specialised found in all organs of plants
 - have thin primary walls, large vacuoles
 - store sugar and starch
 Parenchyma tissues:
 - turgid, give support and shape to herbaceous
plants
 Collenchyma cells:
 - have unevenly thickened
cell walls, esp.corners
 Collenchyma tissue:
 - supports non-woody plants,
young stems, and petioles.

 Sclerenchyma cells:
 - have cell walls uniformly
thickened by lignin, may be dead.
 - give support and mechanical strength to
mature region of a plant
Sclerenchyma tissue Parenchyma tissue

Collenchyma tissue
 c) Vascular tissue
- consists of xylem and phloem
- continuous throughout the plants

 Xylem
- consists mainly of xylem vessels joineds end-end
- extending from roots to leaves
- no cytoplasm in xylem vessels- efficient transport
of water and dissolved mineral salts from roots
to other parts
- cell wall- thickened with lignin : provide support
and mechanical strength
 Phloem
 - consists mainly of sieve tubes arranged end-
end: form long continuous tube-like structures
 - transport organic compounds (carbohydrates,
amino acids) from leaf to other parts of plants.
 ORGANS
 - leaf, stem, root, flower
 - made up of ground tissues, epidermal tissues,
vascular tissues
 - Plants: fewer organs

 SYSTEMS
 - not specialised as in animals
 - Root system and Shoot system
 - Root system: all roots of plants
 - Shoot system: consists of stems, leaves, buds,
flowers, fruits
 Stems and branches- act as support system by
holding the leaves upright for max absorption of
sunlight
 Flowers: involved in pollination
REGULATING THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

 Internal environment:
 - consists of interstitial fluid and blood
plasma
 - interstitial fluid- fills the space between
cells, bathes the cells
 - fluids- exchanges nutrients and wastes
substances with blood plasma in blood
capillaries
 NECESSITY FOR MAINTAINING AN OPTIMAL
INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

 Factors affecting the internal environment:

 - temperature
 - blood pressure physical
 - osmotic pressure
 - salt and sugar content
 - pH value chemical
 HOMEOSTASIS

 Maintenance of a relatively constant internal

environment for the cells to function optimally
 Example: the metabolism of the body
 Chemical factors: glucose and oxygen levels
 Physical factors: temperature and osmotic
pressure
 Governed by negative feedback mechanism
THE INVOLVEMENT OF VARIOUS SYSTEMS IN
MAINTAINING AN OPTIMAL INTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT

 Body temperature
- Regulated by:

 Integumentary system
 Nervous system
 Circulatory system
 Muscular system
 Endocrine system
 Concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide
- Regulated by:
 Circulatory system
 Nervous system

 Blood glucose level

- Regulated by:
 Endocrine system
 Circulatory system
 Digestive system
 Blood osmotic pressure
- Regulated by:
 Endocrine system
 Circulatory system
 Excretory system
 Nervous system

 Chemical contents
- Regulated by:
 Endocrine system
 Circulatory system
 Excretory system
 Nervous system
 pH level
- Regulated by:
 Respiratory system
 Circulatory system
 Excretory system
 Pancreas
secretes
insulin
Blood
Blood
sugar
sugar
level
level rises
falls

Normal Normal
sugar sugar
level level

Blood Blood
sugar sugar
level level
falls rises
Pancreas
secretes
glucagon
 THANK YOU

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