Characteristic Strength

Accordingly, the mean strength of the concrete fcm (as

obtained from 28-day compression tests) has to be
significantly greater than the 5 percentile characteristic
strength fck that is specified by the designer
Behavior under Uni axial compression and
Influence of size of test Specimen
It has been observed that the height/width ratio and the cross-
sectional dimensions of the test specimen have a pronounced
effect on the compressive strength (maximum stress level)
obtained from the uni axial compression test.
Stress Strain Curve of Concrete
Modulus of Elasticity
Poisson’s Ratio
Duration of Loading

The value of the maximum compressive stress (strength) of

concrete is generally taken as 0.85 times the ‘specified
cylinder strength’ ( ′ fc), for the design of reinforced concrete
structural members (compression members as well as flexural
members) [This works out approximately to 0.67 times the
‘characteristic cube strength’ ( ) — as adopted by the Code.
The Code also limits the failure strain of concrete to 0.002
under direct compression and 0.0035
under flexure.
Tensile Strength of Concrete
Creep and its effects
Factors Influencing Creep
Shrinkage
Temperature
 Durability
Definition –
• A durable concrete is one that performs satisfactorily in the working environment
during its anticipated exposure conditions during service (IS 456-2000)
• Durability of concrete is its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack,
abrasion or any other process of deterioration (American Concrete Institute).
• When exposed to environment durable concrete is likely to retain its
original form, quality and serviceability during its lifetime.
• Durable Concrete envisage limits for maximum water cement ratio, minimum
cement content, cover thickness, type of cement used and presence of amount of
chloride and sulphates in concrete. ( IS-SP-28)
• As Low permeability as possible under situation. (IS-SP-23)

38
 Consequences of Improper Quality and
Inadequate Durability
• Loss of strength of concrete
• Concrete liable to be easily affected by deterrents
• Corrosion of rebars
• Loss of serviceability
• Unpleasant appearance
• Danger to persons and property
• Expensive repair costs
• Poor perception of concrete as a material
• Poor perception of agencies involved
• Reduction of service life
• External agencies like weathering, attack by natural or Industrial liquids, Gases, bacterial
Growth etc.
• Alkali- aggregate reaction.
• Ingression of moisture/air facilitating corrosion of steel and cracking concrete cover.
39
Consequences of
Inadequate Durability

40
Consequences of
Inadequate Durability

41
Consequences of
Inadequate Durability

42
Factors Influencing Durability of Concrete
(IS: 456-2000)
• The Environment
• Type and quality of constituent materials
• Cement content and W/C ratio of concrete
• Workmanship especially in compaction curing – it is very important
• Cover to embedded steel
• Shape and size of the member

43
 Factors Affecting Durability
Durability depends on two main factors
a) The concrete system &
b) The service environment

a) Concrete system is based on

• Quality and quantity of materials used and
• Processes involved in manufacture of concrete.

b) Service environment affects concrete by way of

• Physical actions and
• Chemical actions on concrete.
44
 Factors Affecting Durability
DURABILITY

The Concrete System Aggressiveness of the Environment

Materials Process Physical Chemical

• Binder type • Mixing

• Binder content • Transporting • Abrasion • Dissolution
• Aggregates • Compaction • Erosion • Leaching
• Admixture • Curing • Cavitation • Expansion
• Mix design • Temperature • Freeze-thaw • Alteration
• workmanship 45
 Water - Permissible Limits for Solids. IS 456:2000 Table-1

Sr. No. Tested as per Permissible Limit, Max

i) Organic IS 3025 (Part 18) 200 mg/l

ii) Inorganic IS 3025 (Part 18) 3000 mg/l
iii) Sulphates (as SO3) IS 3025 (Part 24) 400 mg/l
iv) Chlorides (as CI) IS 3025 (Part 32) 2000 mg/l for
concrete not containing
embedded steel and 500
mg/l for reinforced concrete
work

v) Suspended matter IS 3025 (Part 17) 2000 mg/l

46
 Impact of W/C Ratio
On Durability
• Permeability is the contributory factor for volume change and higher W/C
ratio is the fundamental cause of higher permeability.
• Use of higher W/C ratio – permeability – volume change – cracks –
disintegration – failure of concrete is a cyclic process in concrete.
• For a durable concrete, use of lowest possible W/C ratio is the fundamental
requirement to produce dense and impermeable concrete.
• Modern superplasticizers of Polymer base are so efficient that it is now
possible to make flowing concrete with a W/C as low as 0.31 or even as low as
0.29 with increased slump more than 250mm.

47
Permeability Vs W/C Graph

48
Exposure Condition
 Workmanship for
Durable Concrete
Batching
Mixing
Transportation
Placing
Compaction
Finishing
Protection
Curing
50
 Compaction of Concrete
• Ensuring suitable workability employing appropriate placing and
compaction equipment
• Adequate compaction without segregation
• 1% voids reduces strength by 5%
Criticality of Curing
• Extremely important if the water-cement ratio is low & cement content
is high.

• If the cement has a high rate of strength development

• Ambient temperature during placing is high and day is windy

• If the concrete contains GGBFS or Pulverized Fly ash (PFA)

Recommended Moist Curing
(IS 456: 2000)
• Normal Weather Conditions
* OPC Based Concretes - 7 Days
* Blended Cements based concretes - 10 Days

• Harsh Weather Conditions (Hot and Dry)

* OPC Based Concretes - 10 Days

* Blended Cements based concretes - 14 Days
Cracks on concrete surface
due to inadequate curing
ENVIRONMENT
Environment can be classified as

a) Physical –
Temperature, Moisture, alternate wetting and drying, freezing and
thawing

b) Chemical –
Acidic, gaseous, alkaline, corrosive
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS ATTACK
AFFECTING DURABILITY
Physical Environment impacts
Temperature
 Significantly affects rate of hydration of cement.
 Leads to Plastic shrinkage cracks in fresh concrete
 Volume changes and cracking especially in mass concrete
 Spalling and disintegration of concrete at higher temperatures > 250ºC (3000c as per
A.M. Neville P-387)
 Variation in ambient temperature causes secondary stresses in structures
 Chemical Action
When we are dealing with durability, chemical attack which results in
volume change, cracking and consequent deterioration of concrete
become a major cause of concern
Types of Chemical attack
• Sulphate attack
• Alkali aggregate reaction
• Chloride ion attack - Corrosion
• Carbonation
• Acid Attack
• Effect on concrete in Seawater
59
 1. Sulphate attack
• Sulphate attack denotes an increase in the volume of cement paste in
concrete or mortar due to chemical action between the products of
hydration of cement and solution containing sulphate, and also sodium,
magnesium and Cholorides.
• In hardened concrete, calcium aluminate hydrate (C-A-H) can react with
sulphate salt from outside, product of reaction is calcium sulphoaluminate,
which can cause an increase in volume up to 22.7%
• Rate of sulphate attack increases with a saturated sulphate solution.
• A saturate solution of magnesium sulphate can cause serious damage to
concrete with high w/c ratio.
 Sulphate attack
Methods of controlling sulphate attack
• Use SRC (sulphate resisting cement)
• Quality concrete - low w/c ratio, well designed and compacted dense
concrete
• Use of air-entrainment
• Use of puzzolana
• High pressure steam curing
• Use of high alumina cement

61
 2. Alkali - Aggregate Reaction
• Alkali from cement, reacts with reactive silica (of aggregates) to form
alkali-silica gel of unlimited swelling type.
• The continuous growth of silica gel exerts osmotic pressure within the
concrete.
• This manifests into cracking and bulging of concrete

Occurrence is due to :
1. High alkali content in cement (more
than 0.6%)
2. Reactive silica in aggregate
3. Availability of moisture
Alkali - Aggregate Reaction
• Alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) is basically a chemical reaction between
the hydroxyl ions in the pore water within concrete and certain types of
rock minerals
• Since reactive silica in the aggregate is involved in this chemical reaction
it is often called alkali-silica- reaction (ASR).
• It is recognized as one of the major causes of cracking of concrete.
• The reaction produces what is called alkali-silica gel of unlimited swelling
type under favorable conditions of moisture and temperature.
• The crack width can range from 0.1mm to as much as 10mm.

63
Alkali - Aggregate Reaction
• Alkali content (K2O and Na2O) or what is called soda equivalent.
• This is calculated as the actual Na2O content plus 0.658 times the K2O
content of the clinker.
• It should be less than 0.6 percent by mass of cement.
• Alkalis from all these sources must be included in finding the total
alkalis.
• British standard 5328 : part 1 : 1091 specifies a maximum of 3.0 kg of
alkalis (expressed as soda equivalent) in 1 m3 of concrete in case of
alkali reactive aggregates are used.

64
 Alkali - Aggregate Reaction
Remedial Measures:
1. Use non-reactive aggregates from
alternate sources
2. Use low-alkali cement
3. Reduce cement content in concrete

4. Use of pozzolana, slag or silica fume

5. Control on service condition,
limiting degree of saturation of
concrete
3. Chlorides in Concrete
• Chlorides in concrete increases risk of corrosion of steel
(Electrochemical reaction) (IS 456:2000)
• Higher Chloride content or exposure to warm moist conditions
increase the risk of corrosion
• To minimize the chances of corrosion, the levels of chlorides in
concrete should be limited
• Total amount of chloride content (as Cl) in concrete at the time of
placing is provided by IS 456:2000
 Methods of Controlling
Chlorides
• Chlorides in cement to be less than 0.1 % max ( or 0.05% max for
prestressed works)
• Chlorides in water to be less than 2000 mg/ltr for PCC and below 500
mg/ltr for RCC
• Chlorides in aggregates are generally not encountered but, it’s a good
practice to wash sand containing salt more than 3%
• Chloride traces are also found in chemical admixtures. Chloride free
admixtures should be generally preferred.

67
Corrosion
Corrosion is an electro-chemical process
Basic Mechanism :
Different areas of the same steel bar become anode and cathode. The electrical
connection being maintained by pore water, which acts as electrolyte

At the anode, steel releases electron and takes the ionic form
Fe → 2e- + Fe2+

At the cathode, water in presence of oxygen and the released electron forms hydroxyl ions
(OH)-
2O2 + H2O + 2e- → 2(OH)-

2H2O+O24e-=4 (OH-)
Fe++ + -
2(OH) → Fe(OH)2 → Iron Hydroxide (Rust)
Example of Delamination
of Concrete cover
Crack formed due to bursting pressure on
account of rusting of reinforcements
 Methods of
Controlling Corrosion
• Limit the chlorides in water, cement, superplastizers, etc to acceptable
levels
• Provide proper cover as per IS norms
• Cover blocks also need to be of good quality
• Concrete should be properly compacted
• Make dense, impermeable / waterproof concrete
• Have protective coatings wherever suitable
• Ensure proper & timely maintenance of structures

71
 4. Carbonation of Concrete
• Mechanism : Carbon dioxide from the air reacts with calcium
hydroxide to form calcium carbonates
• In the presence of moisture, carbonic acid is formed which reduces
the alkalinity of concrete
• pH value of concrete reduces from 12.5 to 9, thus destroying the
protective layer and exposing the steel to corrosion
• Rate of Carbonation depends upon relative humidity, grade of
concrete, permeability of concrete, depth of cover and time
• Nearly 1 mm carbonation is reported per year in normal M-20 grade
of concrete
Measurement of
Depth of Carbonation

Pink color indicates that Ca(OH)2 is unaffected by carbonation. The uncolored

portion indicates that concrete is carbonated
 Carbonation
• Carbonation of concrete is a process by which carbon dioxide from the air
penetrates into concrete and reacts with calcium hydroxide to form
calcium carbonates.
• In actual practice, CO2 present in atmosphere permeates into concrete and
carbonates the concrete and reduces the alkalinity of concrete.
• When all the Ca(OH)2 has become carbonated, the pH value will reduce
upto about 8.3. In such a low pH value, the protective layer gets destroyed
and the steel is exposed to corrosion.

74
 Carbonation
• The highest rate of carbonation occurs at a relative humidity between 50
and 70 percent.
• Protective coating is required to be given for long span bridge girders,
flyovers, Industrial structures and chimneys. Such as plastic paints
(Impermeable)
• Deep cover plays an important role in protecting the steel from
carbonation.

75
Steel in Passivity condition
• Concrete is under continuous attack by aggressive environmental
agencies.
• Good concrete and sufficient cover is the answer for durability

Steel in passivity condition 76

 5. Acid attack
• Concrete is not fully resistant to acids depending upon the type and
concentration of acid.
• Oxalic acid and phosphoric acids are harmless.
• The most vulnerable part of the cement hydrate Is Ca(OH)2, but C-S-H
gel can also be attacked.
• Concrete can be attacked by liquids with pH value less than 6.5.

77
 Acid attack
• But the attack is severe only at a pH value below 5.5.
• At a pH value below 4.5, the attack is very severe.
• Cement compounds are eventually broken down and leached away.
• If acids are able to reach the reinforcing steel through cracks corrosion
can occur leading to further cracking

78
COVER TO REINFORCEMENT

79
Cover to Reinforcement
(IS 456 – 2000)
Exposure Condition Min Nominal
cover (mm)
Mild 20
Moderate 30
Severe 45
Very Severe 50
Extreme 75
Note :
1) For main reinforcement upto 12 mm dia bar for mild exposures, the nominal cover may be
reduced by 5 mm
2) Unless specified otherwise, actual concrete cover should not deviate from the required
80
nominal cover by +10mm or 0mm
 Effect of Other materials
• Mineral Oil – usually effects only fresh concrete in their hardening process (petrol,
petroleum distillates etc)
• Organic Acid – have corrosive effect
• Vegetable & Animal oils & Fats – causes deterioration of concrete surfaces due
to their corrosive action
• Action of Sugar – has retarding effect on fresh concrete; has gradual corrosive
effect on hardened concrete
• Action of Sewage – concrete sewers running full remain unaffected; but in
partially filled sewers where hydrogen sulphide gas is evolved & sulphuric acid is
formed, concrete above sewage level gets affected due to corrosive action of such
acids

81
 Fire Resistance
• The fire resistance is not only dependent upon the type of concrete but
also on the thickness of cover to reinforcement.
• Effect of temperature on the strength of concrete is not much upto a
temperature of about 250oC
• Above 300oC definite loss of strength takes place.
• Portland blast furnance slag cement is found to be more resistant to the
action of fire.
• Light weight concrete stand up better to fire than ordinary concrete.

82
 Fire Resistance
• Best fire resistant aggregates amongst the igneous rocks are, the basalts
and dolerites less amount of silica.
• Since then decomposition takes place only at a very high temperature of
900oC , Limestone is considered as a good fire resistant aggregate.
• Serious reduction in strength occurs at a temperature of about 600oC.

83
Reinforcement
Design Consideration
Bauschinger Effect
Introduction to Structural Design
Structure of a Building
The primary function of a building
structure is to support and transmit
the building loads and forces to the
ground.

Photos courtesy Tilt-up Concrete Association

Characteristics of a Structure

• Strength

• Stability

• Economic Value
Structural System
• Made up of many smaller structural sub-systems that work together
to provide a strong, stable, and cost-effective structure.
• Examples of these smaller structural sub-systems include:

o Roof o Framing
o Walls o Foundations
o Floors

Structural engineers design these structural systems.

Forces and Loads
• A force is any action that causes a change in the shape or motion of
an object.
• A load is a force that is supported by a structural element.
• The terms force and load are often used interchangeably.

SNOW
WIND
Structural Member Forces
Tension – A force that stretches or pulls
apart a member, resulting in the member
elongating.
Compression – A force that squeezes or
presses a member together, resulting in
the member shortening.
Shear – A force that acts perpendicular to
the axis of the member, causing the
internal particles of the member to slide
against each other.
Beam
• A structural element that carries a load that is applied transverse
(perpendicular) to its length.
• Usually a horizontal member that carries a vertical applied load.
• The top fibers of a beam are in compression; the bottom fibers are in
tension.
Cantilever Beam
• A special type of beam that is supported only at one end
• The top fibers of the cantilever are in tension; the bottom fibers are in
compression
Column
A vertical structural element that carries an axial force in compression

COLUMN
Truss
• A structural element that is composed of smaller structural
members typically configured in triangular arrangements
• Some truss members carry a tension force; others carry a
compression force
Arch

• A curved structural element that spans over

an open space
• In stone arches, the last stone to be placed at
the top is called the keystone

KEYSTONE
Vault

A continuous arch that forms a

ceiling or roof
Dome

A structural element that is made up of arches that radiate around a

center point to create a half sphere
Hybrid Forms

• An infinite number of combinations of these forms exist

Steps in Structural Design
1. Planning – How will the building be supported?
2. Establishing the loads
3. Designing preliminary structural configuration and layout
4. Analyzing structural members
5. Selecting preliminary structural members
6. Evaluating the preliminary design
7. Redesigning (if needed) – Repeat the above steps as necessary to
achieve a safe and efficient design
8. Designing and detailing the structural components
Loads

• The load that is assumed for the design of a structure

• May include one or more of the following:
• Dead Load (IS 875 Part 1) Cl.19.2.1
• Imposed Loads/Live Loads (IS 875 Part 2) Cl. 19.3
• Wind Loads (IS 875 Part 3) Cl. 19.3
• Snow Loads (IS 875 Part 4) Cl. 19.3
• Earthquake Loads (IS 1893) Cl. 19.4
• Shrinkage, Creep and Temperature Effects (IS 875 Part 5) Cl.19.5
• Other Forces Cl.19.6
 Design Loads
Dead Loads (DL) – fixed loads
−The weight of the building components
−The weight of fixed service equipment

Photos courtesy www.constructionphotographs.com

 Design Loads

Live Loads (LL) – transient and moving loads

−Loads produced by the use and occupancy
of a building
−Live load may be variable during a
structure’s lifetime ©iStockphoto.com

−Specified in building codes

©iStockphoto.com
 Design Loads
Snow Load
• Force of accumulated snow on a roof
• Specified in building codes (or local building department)
• Depends on

•Location
• Exposure to wind
• Importance of building
• Roof slope

©iStockphoto.com
 Design Loads

Wind Load (WL)

−Resulting loads yield:

• Lateral load on walls
• Downward and upward pressure on roofs
• Overturning of the structure

−Specified in building codes

 Design Loads

Earthquake Loads (EQ) Epicenter

− Vertical and lateral forces (dynamic)
− Building codes can simplify loading

Seismic Forces at Base

of Building

Hypocenter
Foundation Movements IS 1904
Elastic Axial Shortening
 Soil an Fluid Pressures IS 875 Part5

GRADE
Soil Pressure Loads
• Soil adjacent to a structure will apply a
lateral force
• Magnitude increases with depth

BASEMENT

SOIL
Vibration
Fatigue
• Due to repetition of loads
• Impact Load IS 875 Part 5
• Erection Loads IS 875 Part 2
• Stress Concentration effect due to point load and the like
FIRE RESIATANCE
• FIRE RESISTANCE IS 1641, CL 21
Load Types

Uniformly Distributed Load

Concentrated Load
Load Combinations IS 875 PART 5

• A building will be subjected to many loads simultaneously

• Codes specify combinations of loads that must be considered in the
design
• Examples
• DL+ IL/LL
Where DL = Dead load
• DL+ WL/EL/ SL
LL = Live load
• DL + IL + WL/EL/SL WL = Wind load
SL = Snow load
E L= Earthquake load
 Load Path
• The path that a load travels through the HVAC
structural system
• “Tracing” or “chasing” the loads
• Each structural element must be designed
for all loads that pass through it