Review Notes

in Police
Photography

By
Roland T. Dayagan
Revised Syllabi and Tables of Specification for Police
Photography as per Board of Criminology Resolution
No. 01 Series of 2010.

2. POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY SYLLABI

2.1 Kinds and historical development of photography;

2.2 Significance of photography in law enforcement and
criminal investigation;
2.3 Terminologies in photography
2.4 Basic parts and functions of a camera;
2.5 Concepts and kinds of lights, films, lenses, etc.;
2.6 Procedures in crime scene photography;
2.7 Demonstrate the basic process of developing,
printing, and enlarging photographs.
TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS:

2. PHOTOGRAPHY (2%)

2.1 Know the historical, significance and modern

technologies in photography as applied to law
enforcement and criminal investigation.
2.2 Describe the basic parts of a camera, its accessories,
their functions; the different characteristics of films
and photographic papers;
2.3 Apply the systematic procedure in crime scene
photography and demonstrate the basic process of
developing, printing, and enlarging of films for court
presentation.
WHAT IS PHOTOGRAPHY?

PHOTOGRAPHY - The process or art of producing images

of objects on sensitized surfaces by the chemical action of
light. The word "photography" derives from the Greek and
means, literally, “light writing.”

"Photography" is derived from the Greek words photos

("light") and graphein ("to draw") The word was first used
by the scientist Sir John F.W. Herschel in 1839. It is a
method of recording images by the action of light, or
related radiation, on a sensitive material.
PHOTOGRAPH vs. PICTURE

Photograph is an image produced through the action

of light, while;

Picture is a representation or image on a surface, e.g. a

painting, drawing, print or photograph, especially, as a
work of art. (Webster's dictionary)
POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY vs. FORENSIC
PHOTOGRAPHY

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY:
Police Photography is the study of the general
practices, methods, and steps in taking pictures of the
crime scene, physical things, and other circumstances that
can be used as criminal evidences or for law enforcement
purposes.

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY:
Forensic photography is that field covering the legal
application of photography in criminal jurisprudence and
criminal investigation. It is that branch of forensic science
dealing with the:
• study of the fundamental but pragmatic principles/concepts
of photography
• application of photography in law enforcement; and
• Preparation of photographic evidence needed by
prosecutors and courts of law.

Important personalities and their contributions in the

field of photography:

1. Johannes Kepler was the first person to coin the phrase

Camera Obscura in 1604, and in 1609, Kepler further
suggested the use of a lens to improve the image
projected by a Camera Obscura.
2. In 1664-1666 Isaac Newton discovers that white light is
composed of different colors.
3. In 1727: Professor J. Schulze mixes chalk, nitric acid,
and silver in a flask; notices darkening on side of flask
exposed to sunlight. Accidental creation of the first
photo-sensitive compound.

4. In 1826-27, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce took eight (8)

hours to obtain the first fixed or permanent image
combining the camera with photosensitive paper.

5. Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre, inventor of the first

practical process of photography. Daguerre developed
a more convenient and effective method of
photography, naming it after himself -- the
daguerreotype. This process takes 30 minutes of
exposure.
6. In 1841William Henry Fox Talbot patents the Calotype
process - the first negative-positive process making
possible the first multiple copies.

7. In 1851 Frederick Scott Archer, introduced the Collodion

process. This process was much faster than conventional
methods, reducing exposure times to two or three seconds,
thus opening up new horizons in photography.

8. In 1861 Oliver Wendell Holmes invents stereoscope

viewer.
9. In 1861, Scottish physicist James Clerk-Maxwell
demonstrates a color photography system involving three
black and white photographs, each taken through a red,
green, or blue filter. The photos were turned into lantern
slides and projected in registration with the same color
filters. This is the "color separation" method.

10. In 1871, Richard Leach Maddox invented the gelatin

dry plate silver bromide process - negatives no longer had
to be developed immediately.

11. In 1877, Eadweard Muybridge paved the way for

motion picture photography.
12. In 1884, George Eastman is particularly remembered
for introducing flexible, paper-based photographic film.
Four years later he introduced the box camera, and
photography could now reach a much greater number of
people.
SPECIAL USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY/Modern scientific
photographic techniques.

1. INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY Infrared photography is

the recording of images formed by infrared radiation. Because
infrared radiation is invisible, some special techniques may be
needed. But, in general, most of the commonly required
methods are as simple as those of ordinary photography.
These uses a special films that are sensitive to infrared
radiation.

Infrared rays which are invisible, have a longer wavelength

than visible light. They can penetrate haze that scatters the
waves of visible light. For this reason, infrared photographs
often much clearer than ordinary photographs. Pictures can be
taken with infrared rays even at night or in complete darkness.
Uses In Law Enforcement

1.Questioned documents. Even crossed-out words

or writings on a charred piece of paper can be
read if photographs of them are taken with
infrared rays.
2.Aerial photography.
a.Infrared photography can enhance the contrast of
the terrain.
b. Coniferous (darker) and deciduous (lighter)
growth is differentiated.
3.Surveillance photography.
4. Detection of gunshot-powder burns, stains and
irregularities in cloth.
5. Detection of certain types of secret writings.
6. It can differentiate inks, dyes, and pigments that appears
visually the same;
7. Fabrics that appear to be similar but have been dyed
differently can be identified by infrared;
8. It may also reveal the contents of sealed envelopes;
9. It is also valuable in detecting stains on cloth, including
blood stains that are not visible to the eye; and,
10. Powder residues surrounding bullet holes in cloth, even
when the fabric is dark in color or bloodstained, may be
made visible by infrared.
Other uses:

a. Used in mediceine to inspect damage to veins and

healing beneath scabs.

b. Faults in the weaving of textiles show up in infrared

photography.
2. ULTRAVIOLET PHOTOGRAPHY

Some materials will absorb ultraviolet, while

others will reflect these radiations. Some have partial
reflection. These effects can be recorded
photographically suing ultraviolet radiation. Black-and-
white films are sensitive to most wavelengths of
ultraviolet. By using a filter that absorbs all visible light
but passes ultraviolet, it is possible to make a
photographic exposure with just ultraviolet.
Uses in Law Enforcement

a. Try ultraviolet photography after visible light techniques

and infrared light techniques fail (questioned documents,
etc.).
b. Fingerprints on multicolored surfaces (dust with
fluorescent powder or ninhydrin).
c. Body secretions such as urine, semen and perspiration
often glow when illuminated by ultraviolet light.
d. Money and other valuables can be dusted or marked to
identify thiefs.
e. Photographing “invisible ink”.
Use of Reflective Ultraviolet Photography
to Photo-Document Bruising to Children
Reflective UV photography will show bruising or bite marks that
are no longer visible.
3. X-RAY PHOTOGRAPHY – is widely use in medicine,
industry, and science. It is quite different from ordinary
photography. X rays are invisible electromagnetic waves.
They behave much like visible light. But they can pass
through things such as wood, cardboard, and flesh, which
light cannot penetrate.
4. PHOTOMICROGRAPHY – It combines a camera with
microscope. Pictures can then be taken of things too small
to be seen with naked eye. A photograph taken through a
microscope is called photomicrograph.

Photomicrography is the practice of photographing very

small objects in order that they may be seen in comfort.
(One should not confuse this with micro-photography,
which is the opposite.)
5. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPHY – A.K.A. Micro-filming

This is photography made on a vastly reduced scale, to

be observed using a microscope or projected using a "magic
lantern." Though George Shadbolt is credited with being the
inventor of micro-photography, the first known example of
micro-photography was by John Benjamin Dancer, in 1839,
when he produced photographs 15mm in diameter.

The term should not be (but often is!) confused with photo-
micrography; the micro-photographic process is taken to
mean a substantial reduction of the "real thing" either for
archival, portability or, as shown above, clandestine purposes.

Micro-photography is the production of photographs in which

the image of an objects is reproduced much smaller than it
actually is. It is just the opposite of photomacrography.
6. MACROPHOTOGRAPHY - Photography of a subject
where the image is recorded in the same or larger than actual
size.

It is the process of obtaining a magnified photograph of a

small object without the use of a microscope, by using a
short focus lens or macro lens/close-up lens and a long
bellow extension.
A MACROGRAPH shows the subject at actual size or larger.
 Part 2. PHOTOGRAPHIC COMPONENTS

1. A subject
2. A light source
3. A camera
4. Photographic film
5. Chemicals for processing film
6. A printing device
7. Photographic paper.
8. Chemicals for processing paper
I. SUBJECT

The subject can be anything. If it can be seen, it

can be photographed. Just as there must be light to
form an image, there must be a subject from which to
form the image.
II. CAMERA

The camera is essentially a light tight box with an optical

system at one end and an image support at the other.

A camera is a device used to take pictures (usually

photographs), either singly or in sequence, with or without
sound recording, such as with video cameras.

The name is derived from camera obscura, Latin for "dark

chamber", an early mechanism for projecting images in
which an entire room functioned much as the internal
workings of a modern photographic camera, except there
was no way at this time to record the image short of
manually tracing it.
Video or Movie Camera vs. Still or Photo camera

Video /movie cameras /ciné cameras in Europe captures

many images in sequence, while

Still or Photo camera are designed to take photographs

singly or for single images

However these categories overlap, as still cameras

are often used to capture moving images in special effects
work and modern digital cameras are often able to
trivially switch between still and motion recording modes.
CAMERA OBSCURA – THE ORIGIN OF CAMERA

CAMERA OBSCURA - A device used by early artists

(centuries before Christ) to display a scene on the wall of
an otherwise-darkened room so that it could be more-
easily copied. In a manner similar to the pinhole camera, a
small hole placed in an opposite wall permitted light to
enter the room (the “camera”), and the scene outside
became transmitted inside, and was shown inverted on the
rear wall or sometimes on a screen. The camera obscura is
the origin of the modern camera.
A camera obscura box used for drawing images
CAMERA LUCIDA

The Camera Lucida, designed in 1807 by Dr. William

Wollaston, was an aid to drawing. It was a reflecting prism
which enabled artists to draw outlines in correct perspective.
No darkroom was needed. The paper was laid flat on the
drawing board, and the artist would look through a lens
containing the prism, so that he could see both the paper
and a faint image of the subject to be drawn. He would then
fill in the image. However, as anyone who has tried using
these will know only too well, that too required artistic skills,
as Fox Talbot also discovered.
 CAMERA TYPES

1. Box Camera - early (Viewfinder camera - modern)

For more than several decades the box camera

(viewfinder) was the instrument of choice for the casual
amateur photographer. Inexpensive and simple, it was,
nevertheless, capable of excellent results under many
conditions. Box cameras were normally fitted with a single-
element lens, a limited range of aperture control, and a
single-speed leaf shutter.
 The box camera is, with the exception of the pin
hole camera, a camera in its simplest form. The classic box
camera is shaped more or less like a box, hence the name.
A box camera has a simple optical system, often only in the
form of a simple meniscus lens. It usually lacks a focusing
system (fix-focus) as well as control of aperture and shutter
speeds. This makes it suitable for daylight photography only.

In the 1950s, box cameras with photographic flash

were introduced, allowing indoor photos.
VIEWFINDER CAMERA - Camera with a viewfinder that is
separate from the lens used in taking the picture. A simple
point-and-shoot disposable camera is an example of a
viewfinder camera, but not all viewfinder cameras are simple.

The VIEWFINDER CAMERA is the most popular type of camera.

Types of Viewfinder Camera

a. Compact camera/Instamatic camera - Commonly

refers to a point-and-shoot camera. These cameras are
usually fully automatic

Point and Shoot Cameras are a viewfinder type camera

with added focus abilities that make it an ideal camera for
vacation and travel snapshots. Most of them use autofocus
or focus free lenses for focusing and automatic systems for
exposure as well. Point and shoot cameras usually have a
fairly wide angle lens and require you to get close to the
subject to make a dominant photograph. For doing a group
shot or a scenic or snap shot where there is a lot of material
to include in a frame these cameras are ideal. For a quick
photo these are tops.
A Casio point & shoot camera
b. Single-use Camera (Disposable)- Camera that is used only
once. It is disposed of after the film is removed for processing.
2. Pinhole Camera

A pinhole camera is a camera without a lens. An

extremely small hole takes its place, which should be in very
thin material. An image's light from a scene passes through
this single point, and because there is no lens, the image
will be clear at all distances from the pinhole. The smaller
the hole, the sharper the image, but the more exposure will
be required. Also, in order to produce a reasonably clear
image, the ratio of the pinhole, or aperture, size to the
distance between it and the screen should be 1/100 or less.
The shutter of a pinhole camera is usually manually
operated because of the lengthy times, and consists of a
flap of some light-proof material to cover and uncover the
pinhole. Typical exposure times range from 5 seconds to
hours and sometimes days.
Principle of a pinhole camera. Light rays from an object pass
through a small hole to form an image.
3. Folding-Roll Film Camera

Basically, though, it was a box camera whose lens was

incorporated into a movable bellows that could slide back
and forth on a rail, allowing the lens to change focus.
Lenses and shutters were often one-piece units. The most
significant advantage they have over the box camera,
however, was their compact design when folded, which
made them easier to pack and transport. There has been
something of a minor renaissance in folding-roll film
cameras in recent years, with appearance of several new
professional instruments. They are appreciated for their
large negative size and compact design.
4. Range Finder Camera

A rangefinder camera is a camera fitted with a rangefinder:

a range-finding focusing mechanism allowing the
photographer to measure the subject distance and take
photographs that are in sharp focus.

Similar to a Viewfinder type camera this camera does

not use a lens to view the subject but instead relies on a
separate viewing system in the camera for aiming and for
focus.
A Foca camera of 1947 at the
Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris. 1957-1960 Kodak Retina IIIC
 Leica M7
rangefinder
Nikon SP and S3
cameras
5. View Camera

A large format camera - a term that applies to cameras that

produce an individual image size of 5" X 4" or larger. It is
most often found in a studio, and is sometimes even called a
"studio camera," although the view camera can be
transported and set up in the field.

View Cameras and Technical Cameras Cameras in this

category are used almost exclusively by professional
photographers. The most common film formats are 4 x 5 or
8 x 10 inches, the latter often used in the very large
cameras found in portrait studios. Film for these cameras is
loaded in the darkroom into two-sided holders, which are
inserted at the back of the camera.
The VIEW CAMERA is the largest of the basic camera types.
6. Instant Camera

An instant camera is a type of camera with self-

developing film. The most famous are those made by the
Polaroid Corporation. The invention of modern instant
cameras is generally credited to American scientist Edwin
Land, who unveiled the first commercial instant camera, the
Land Camera, in 1947, 10 years after founding the Polaroid
Corporation.
Instant Cameras An instant camera will produce a finished
print in from 20 seconds to about 4 minutes. The film, after
exposure, is passed between two stainless steel rollers
inside the camera. These rupture a chemical pod on the film
and spread developing agent evenly over the film's
surface.
The Polaroid SX-70 Model 2
The Polaroid Land Camera
model J66 Polaroid Square Shooter 2
7. Miniature camera

This group consist of a large variety of makes and

models taking very small pictures. The miniature cameras are
small, compact ones, with size measuring as small as 3 x 1
5/8 x 1 ½ inches and a weight as low as 3.3 ounces.

Generally speaking, the term “miniature” includes

cameras using films in size from 8-mm, 9.5-mm, 16-mm to
35-mm film cartridges.
8. Reflex camera

A camera that has a mirror directly in the path of

light traveling through the lens that reflects the scene to a
viewing screen.

Two Kinds:

a. Single-Lens Reflex Camera

b. Twin-lens Reflex Camera
a. Twin Lens Reflex - (TLR) A camera having two
separate lenses of the same focal length - one for viewing
and focusing; the other for exposing the film. The lenses
are mechanically-coupled so that both are focused at the
same time.

Twin-Lens Reflex Cameras A medium-format

camera--one that uses film larger than 35mm It is fitted
with two lenses of identical focal length, one mounted atop
the other. The lower, or taking, lens focuses its image
directly on the film, while the image produced by the upper
viewing lens is reflected through 90 degrees by a mirror,
and brought to focus on a horizontal ground-glass focusing
screen. The light paths to the film plane and the focusing
screen are equal, so that if the photographer brings the
scene on the focusing screen to sharp focus, the image on
the film plane will be equally sharp.
Yashica LM Twin Lens Reflex Camera
b. Single Lens Reflex - (SLR)

A camera with one lens only for both viewing and

picture-taking. The image is reflected onto a viewing
screen by a moveable mirror in the camera. The mirror
flips out of the way just before the shutter opens,
permitting light to strike the film.
 During an exposure the viewfinder
is blocked

A 35mm SLR Canon FT QL (1966)

 Cross-section view of SLR
system:
1 - Front-mount Lens (4
element Tessar design)
2 - Reflex Mirror at 45 degree
angle
3 - Focal Plane Shutter
4 - 35mm Film or Sensor
5 - Focusing Screen
6 - Condenser Lens
7 - Optical Glass Pentaprism
(or Pentamirror)
8 - Eyepiece (can have diopter
correction ability)
A cross-section (or 'side-view')
of the optical
 BASIC PARTS OF CAMERA

A. This first and main part is called the body (light tight
box).

B. The second part is the shutter which might be located in

the lens (leaf shutter or between the lens shutter) or it might
be located right in front of the film (focal plane shutter).

C. The lens lets in light. It draws the light into the camera
and focuses it on the film plane. The lens is probably the
most important part of the camera. Photography is all about
capturing light, and all the light you capture passes through
the lens. The larger the lens the more light. The lens also
effects how large the image appears based on the
focal length of the lens.
D. The aperture is located in the lens and is a set of leaf
like piece of metal that can change the size of the hole that
lets in light. We consider the lens to be part of the shutter
as we do not actually need a lens to focus an image if we
have a small enough hole to let in the light.

E. Finally, the film holder inside the camera. This must

have some attachment that allows for the film to be moved
which can either be a lever or a motor.
 IMPORTANT TERMS TO NOTE:

1. Exposure( Shutter speed and aperture combination)

Exposure simply refers to the amount of light

recorded on the film or sensor. You want the right amount of
exposure to capture the image you see (or are trying to
create).

If you shoot a daylight scene with too much light

hitting an overly high ISO sensor for too long, you'll end up
with an overly bright, glaring, unrealistic image. On the other
hand, a small aperture at low ISO and short shutter speed
could make a daylight scene look dark and murky. Balancing
shutter speed, ISO and aperture to get the correct exposure
is the key to great photography.
2. Shutter

A movable cover for an opening. It open and closes to

control the length of time light strikes the film. The shutter
blocks the passage of light traveling through the lens to the
film when it is closed, and allows light to reach the film when
it is open. They control the amount of time that light is
allowed to pass through the opening to reach the film.

Controls how LONG light enters the camera. This is TIMED

by the shutter speed dial, usually on top of the camera. The
larger the number the SHORTER the time. A short time lets
in light quickly which will stop the MOTION an object might
have as it travels across the film while being exposed.
3. Shutter speed is the third part of the exposure
equation. It refers to how long the shutter remains open to
allow light through. Controls the duration of an exposure -
the faster the Shutter speed, the shorter the exposure time.

Shutter speeds are given in fractions of a second --

you'll commonly shoot at 1/500. Shutter speed is tricky
because slow shutter speeds don't just allow more light
through, they can cause blurring. The entire time the
shutter is open, light is hitting the sensor, and if an object
(or the camera itself) moves during that time, the
movement will show up as a blur. If you've ever seen one of
those photographs of the stars at night showing the lines of
their motion as the Earth rotates, that image was the result
of a very long shutter speed recording the starlight over
several hours.
You can reduce blur by using a
tripod to hold the camera steady
when you shoot, which lets you
use slower shutter speeds, but if
you're shooting sports and you
don't want blurry players, that only
helps so much.

This image shows how

photographers can use
shutter speed to great
effect.
Shutter Speeds on the common camera

1000 - 500 - 250 - 125 - 60 - 30 - 15 - 8 - 4 - 2 - 1 - B

Each speed is a fraction of a second - like 1/1000th of

a second or 1/4 of a second. B stands for bulb and holds the
shutter open as long as the shutter release is held down.
This used to be attached to a long hose to a bulb held in the
photographer’s hand, thus the name Bulb.
4. Aperture (Lens Opening/Lens Speed)

A circle-shaped opening in a lens (a hole, really)

through which light passes to strike the film. The aperture is
usually created by an iris diaphragm that is adjustable,
enabling the aperture to be made wider or narrower, thereby
letting in more or less light. The size of the aperture is
expressed as an '-number, like '/8 or '/11.

The aperture controls how MUCH light enters the

camera. This opening is inside the LENS of the camera and is
adjusted by a ring on the outside of the lens. The larger the
opening the less sharp the final image will be, much like in
our original pinhole camera. The larger the opening the more
light that is allowed into the camera.
The APERTURE is the opening you see in the lens.
That opening
you see in the
lens actually has
a name -- and
it's more
important than
you think.
Apertures on the common camera

1.4 - 2 - 4 - 5.6 - 8 - 11 - 16 - 22 - 32

OR

f/1, f/1.4, f/2, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22,
f/32, f/45, f/64, f/90, f/128

Each of these represents a fraction again, thus 2 is

1/2 and 22 is 1/22 representing the basic size of the
opening in relation to the focal length of the lens. An
aperture of f2 on a telephoto lets in the same amount of
light as on a 200 mm telephoto, yet the size of the opening
will not be identical.
Understanding Lens Speed

A lens’s speed is determined by the maximum amount of

light the lens is capable of transmitting—the largest f-stop
value. When a lens is capable of transmitting more light
than other lenses of the same focal length, that lens is
referred to as fast. Fast lenses allow photographers to
shoot at higher shutter speeds in low-light conditions. For
example, lenses with maximum f-stop values between 1.0
and 2.8 are considered fast.
5. f-Number and f-stop

f-NUMBER - (ƒ-number) A number that expresses a lens’

light-transmitting ability - i.e. the size of the lens opening.
Usually found on the barrel of a lens, f-numbers indicate the
size of the aperture in relation to the focal length of the
lens. A smaller number indicates a larger lens diameter.
ƒ/1.4 signifies that the focal length of the lens is 1.4 times
as great as the diameter. All lenses set at the same f-
number transmit the same amount of light.

ƒ-stop - (f-stop) A lens aperture setting calibrated to an f-

number.
F-stop is simply the nomenclature that photographers use
when discussing different sizes of aperture.

F-stops are usually given as "f/8" or "f/22." The

numbers can range from less than one (only a few lenses
and cameras are capable of f/0.95, for instance) to f/128. A
higher f-stop indicates a smaller aperture and less light
getting through. Usually, f-stops are indicated on a standard
scale in which each increase represents an aperture that
allows half as much light to get through. For example, f/8
allows half as much light through as f/5.6.
The bottom scale on this lens shows f-NUMBERS from ƒ/16 to ƒ/1.4.
Using Reciprocity to Compose Your Image

You can adjust the aperture setting and shutter speed

to create several different correctly exposed images. The
relationship between the aperture and shutter is known
as reciprocity. Reciprocity gives the photographer control
over the depth of field of the image, which controls the area
of the image that remains in focus. This is the easiest way to
control what part of the image you want the viewer to pay
attention to. For example, opening the lens aperture by one
stop and decreasing the shutter speed by one stop results in
the same exposure. Closing the aperture by one stop and
increasing the shutter speed by one stop achieves the same
exposure as well. Therefore, f4 at 1/90 of a second is equal
to f5.6 at 1/45 of a second. The reason is that the camera’s
aperture setting and shutter speed combine to create the
correct exposure of an image.
6. Aperture priority vs. Shutter priority

Aperture Priority - A function or shooting mode of a semi-

automatic camera that permits the photographer to preset
the aperture and leaves the camera to automatically
determine the correct shutter speed. What does that mean?
You select the aperture setting you want and the camera then
automatically calculates the appropriate corresponding
shutter speed for proper exposure. It's like a fully-automatic
camera except you totally control the aperture.

Shutter Priority - An exposure mode (in a camera with

automatic exposure control) that permits the photographer to
preset shutter speed while the camera automatically
determines the aperture setting required for proper exposure.
7. Depth of field vs. Depth of focus

Depth Of Field (DOF) – The zone of acceptable sharpness

or the area or 'zone' of a photograph, from front to back,
which is in focus or the range of distance in a scene that
appears to be in focus and will be reproduced as being
acceptably sharp in an image. Depth of field could be shallow
or greater.

Depth Of Focus - A zone of focus in the camera. If an

image is focused on a ground glass screen in a camera, depth
of focus makes it possible to move the screen slightly
backward or forward and still have the image in acceptable
focus.
Little depth of field (Shallow)
Greater depth of field = More sharp detail is visible.
This photo
beautifully
demonstrates a
camera's limited
depth of field.
Factors that affects of controls the depth of field
(DOF):

1. Aperture. This is the primary controller of the DOF. Wide

opening or fast lens (smaller f-number) = shallow depth
of field. Small opening of slow lens (greater f-number) =
greater depth of field.

2. Distance between the photographer or lens and the

subject. The farther the distance, the greater the depth
of field. The closer the distance, the shallower the depth
of field.

3. Focal Length. The longer the focal length (bigger

number), the shallower the depth of field. The shorter
the focal length (smaller number), the greater the DOF.
8. Focal length, focal point and focal plane

Focal Length - Focal length is the distance between the

focal point of a lens and the film plane when the lens is
focused at infinity. It is used to designate the relative size and
angle of view of a lens, expressed in millimeters (mm). A
particular lens' focal length can generally be found engraved
or printed on the front of the lens.

Focal Point - (1) The central or principal point of focus. (2)

The optical center of a lens when it is focused on infinity.

Film plane/Focal Plane - The place in a camera where the

film is located in readiness for it to be exposed to light. It is
sometimes marked on camera body with the 'Φ' symbol
where the vertical bar represents the exact location.
9. Hyperfocal distance vs. Hyperfocal point

Hyperfocal Distance - Technically, it is the distance

between the camera and the hyperfocal point. But, in
practice, Hyperfocal distance is a lens setting technique that
allows you to shoot sharp pictures within a certain distance
range without having to refocus. When the lens is focused on
infinity, the hyperfocal distance is the distance of the nearest
object in a scene that is acceptably sharp.

Hyperfocal Point - When the lens is focused on infinity, the

nearest point to the camera that is considered acceptably
sharp is the Hyperfocal point. By focusing on the hyperfocal
point, everything beyond it to infinity remains in acceptable
focus, and objects halfway between the camera and the
hyperfocal point will also be rendered acceptably sharp.
10. Focus

Focus is a function of a camera's lens and the current

aperture setting. An object that is in focus in crisp and clear,
while one that is out of focus will appear blurry.

Photographers have many ways to manipulate and

adjust focus. Some prefer to manually focus a shot using the
focus ring. Point-and-shoot camera users often rely
on autofocus, which is a system that lets a camera's sensors
detect the subject's distance as a motor automatically adjusts
the focus. Autofocus is very handy, but has its limits if you're
shooting several subjects at various distances from the
camera, or subjects that are moving toward or away from the
camera.
 III. PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHTING

Light, or visible light, is electromagnetic radiation of a

wavelength that is visible to the human eye (about 400–
700 nm). Light is composed of elementary particles called
photons.

The speed (velocity) of light in a vacuum is exactly

299,792,458 m/s (about 186,282.397 miles per second).
The speed of light depends upon the medium in which it is
traveling, and the speed will be lower in a transparent
medium.
Important Related Terms:

A. Reflected light vs. Transmitted light

If the object is transparent, then the vibrations of the

electrons are passed on to neighboring atoms through the
bulk of the material and reemitted on the opposite side of the
object. Such frequencies of light waves are said to be
transmitted.

If the object is opaque, then the vibrations of the

electrons are not passed from atom to atom through the bulk
of the material. Rather the electrons of atoms on the
material's surface vibrate for short periods of time and then
reemit the energy as a reflected light wave. Such frequencies
of light are said to be reflected.
B. Reflection - the bouncing of light from matter.

Law of Reflection – the angle of incidence formed by

incoming ray of light is equal to the angle of reflection
formed by the outgoing ray.

Incident Light - Light falling on a surface - not the light

reflected from it.
The Law of Reflection
Light is known to behave in a very predictable manner. If a ray
of light could be observed approaching and reflecting off of a
flat mirror, then the behavior of the light as it reflects would
follow a predictable law known as the law of reflection. The
diagram below illustrates the law of reflection.
C. Refraction Vs Diffraction

Refraction is the change in direction of a wave due to a

change in its speed or it is the change of the direction of
light when it crosses a boundary from one transparent
material, such as air, to another such as glass, unless it is
travelling exactly perpendicular to the boundary.

Diffraction is the bending of light as it passes the edge

of an object.

Scientists had noticed that objects with sharp

edges cast shadows that are not as sharp. Light seems to
bend a little bit around the edge of the object, producing
a fuzzy boundary between light and darkness.
Refraction
The intensity pattern formed on
a screen by diffraction from a Colors seen in a spider web are
square aperture partially due to diffraction,
according to some analyses.
D. Photographic Rays/Types of radiation

1. Radio Waves
It has the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic
spectrum. Radio waves were discovered by the German
physiscist Heinrich Hertz in 1888 and were at first called
Hertzian waves.

Radio waves generally are utilized by antennas of

appropriate size (according to the principle of resonance),
with wavelengths ranging from hundreds of meters to about
one millimeter. They are used for transmission of data, via
modulation. Television, mobile phones, MRI, wireless
networking and amateur radio all use radio waves.
2. Infrared radiation/light

Infrared light are light having wavelengths greater

than 700 millimicrons. Its wavelength ranges from 700 to
800 millimicrons. Infrared is not a color or any kind of red. It
is an invisible ray detected by the skin as heat. It is so called
infrared because they sojourn the red spectrum. Infrared
means below the red. This ray of light although invisible is
important in law enforcement photography because it
permits result to be obtained which are not possible with
only visible light present.
3. Visible light

The range of the visible light produces different

sensation when they strike the human eye. Colors of
different objects are usually mixtures of light of various
wavelength and not a special color. The wavelength of the
visible light is from 400 to 700 millimicrons which produce
white light.
4. Ultra-violet light

The ultra-violet light is divided into the near and far

ultra-violet and ranges from about two hundred (200) to
four hundred (400) millimicrons wavelength. Thus ray is
invisible like the infrared. The position of the ultra-violet
region falls between X-ray and visible wavelength. Since
ultra-violet radiation can kill bacteria, it is sometimes used
to sterilize foods and water. Police scientists may use
ultraviolet light to detect bloodstains, forged document,
and faked oil paintings.
5. X-rays (Discovered by a German physicist. Wilhelm
Roentgen in 1895)

After UV come X-rays. It is an Electromagnetic radiation

similar to light but of shorter wavelength and capable of
penetrating solids. X-rays can fog photographic film. Hard X-
rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays. X-rays are
used for seeing through some things and not others, as well
as for high-energy physics and astronomy. Neutron stars and
accretion disks around black holes emit X-rays, which enable
us to study them.
6. Gamma rays

After hard X-rays come gamma rays. These are the

most energetic photons, having no defined lower limit to their
wavelength. It's uncertain what the physical lower limit of their
wavelengths would be. They are useful to astronomers in the
study of high-energy objects or regions and find a use with
physicists thanks to their penetrative ability and their
production from radioisotopes.

Gamma rays have frequencies of about one hundred

million trillion cycles per second and can easily pierce through
materials like concrete and steel. Nuclear explosions release
gamma rays that can destroy living cells and cause radiation
sickness. However, they are also used by physicians to kill
cancerous or diseased cells in the body.
E. Lighting (Outdoor Lighting)

Lighting is critical in photography. The direction from

which the light comes determines where shadows fall.
Sometimes these shadows completely obscure details in the
picture. On the other hand, shadows may reveal details which
would otherwise be invisible. Here are basic rules that will
help you to understand lighting and judge how each scene
should be lit:

1. Back lighting: Light directed at the subject from behind

the subject. This has little value in crime scene
photography. A light directly behind the subject creates a
silhouette. The subject may be entirely concealed by its
own shadow. Furthermore, any light shining directly into
the lens can cause "FLARE". This may make the whole
picture foggy, streaked or spotty in appearance.
FLARE can show up as a plain area of unwanted bright light or in
shapes matching the aperture.
2. Side Lighting: This may be very good or very bad,
depending on the situation. Side lighting puts shadows on
the unlit side of the subject. These shadows are often
essential to bring out the fine texture that is found in a cloth
sample, a footprint or a tool mark. Try to use side lighting in
all such situations.

On the other hand, when you shoot into a subject,

the shadows obscure important interior details. When
subjects such as automobiles, handbags and closets are side
lit, even large objects inside them may not appear on the
negative. You usually want to avoid side lighting in these
situations.
PHC Ronald W. Bayles 302.89
Figure 12.—Sidelighting.
3. Front Lighting: the sun is in back of the photographer

This is essentially shadowless. It, therefore, gives the

best representation of most crime scenes. When you do not
have a specific need for shadows in a scene, you will normally
be wise to light it from the front. In daylight, be sure that the
sun is behind you or at least over your shoulder-- Right or
Left, it does not matter.

This over-the-shoulder lighting was probably the first

photographic advice you ever received. It may seem to be a
universal recipe for good photography, but it is not.
The case against over-the-shoulder lighting is that it
produces a flattened effect, doing nothing to bring out
the detail or to provide an impression of depth.
PHC Ronald W. Bayles 302.89
Figure 11.—Frontlighting.
Classification of Natural or Daylight According to its
Intensity

1. Bright sunlight. The subjects will produced a strong

shadow, because the source of light is not covered and the
objects or subjects appear glossy in open space due to
direct sunlight and reflected lights coming from the sky
which act as a reflector.

2. Hazy sunlight. The sun is covered by thin clouds and the

shadow appears bluish because of the decrease of light
falling on the subjects in open space.

3. Dull sunlight. The sun is totally covered by thick clouds.

No shadows are cast, due to the uniform illumination of
lights all around the subjects in open space.
 These classifications are modified by the film
manufacturer, like (a) Open bright sunlight (b) under
shade bright sunlight (c) hazy sunlight (d) cloudy
bright sunlight (e) dull sunlight.
 IV. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTER

Filter - Tinted glass, gelatin or plastic discs, squares or

rectangles that modify the light passing through them.
Filters are used in photography to change the appearance
of a scene by emphasizing, eliminating or changing color or
density, generally so that the scene can be recorded with a
more natural look, on a particular film.
FILTER SIZE, measured in millimeters, is inscribed on the filter (left) and
sometimes on the lens (right).
Purpose

The purpose of photographic filters is to alter the

characteristics of light that reaches the light-sensitive
emulsion. As light is transmitted through a filter, at least
one of the following alterations occurs:

•The color of light is modified.

•The amount of light is reduced.
•The vibration direction of the light rays is limited.
 To use photographic filters properly, you must
understand the nature of transmitted light.

White light is composed of three primary co

lors: red, green and blue. A filter of a primary color
will transmit its own color and absorb the other two;
for example, a red filter looks red because it transmits red
and absorbs green and blue.

Secondary colors are mixtures of primary

colors. Yellow, for example, is a combination of red and
green. Because a filter passes its own color and absorbs
others, a yellow filter passes red and green and
absorbs blue.
In selecting a filter in black and white
photography, you can use the color star to determine the
effect of the filter on the gray scale of
the negative and the final print.

On the final print, the result will be that a filter will

lighten its own color and the colors adjacent to it and darken
its complement and
the colors adjacent to its complement; for example, a
green filter will lighten green (its own color) and cyan
and yellow (adjacent colors). It will darken magenta (its
complement) and blue and red (adjacent colors of the
complement).
Primary/Additive and Secondary/Subtractive Colors of light
SPECIAL-PURPOSE FILTERS

Some of the special-purpose filters you will work with include

the following:

1.Neutral Density Filters. Neutral density (ND) filters

reduce the amount of light passing through a camera lens
without changing the reproduction of colors in the scene.
These filters are nonselective in their absorption of colors of
light and
therefore uniformly reduce the various colors of light
in the spectrum. Thus white light and colored light are
transmitted through a ND filter with only the intensity of
the light being affected. These filters can be used with both
black-and-white and color film.
 ND filters are gray in appearance. These filters may
be needed for pictures of a brilliant subject in bright
sunlight. When you have set the fastest shutter speed and
the smallest f/stop and still cannot take the picture
without overexposing the film, you can use a ND filter to
further reduce the exposure.
 Demonstration of the effect of a
neutral density filter

Comparison of two pictures showing the

result of using a ND-filter at a landscape.
Neutral Density Filters are often used to The first one uses only a polarizer and the
achieve motion blur effects with slow shutter second one a pol and a 1000x ND-Filter
speeds (ND3.0).
2. Haze Filters

Suspended in the earth’s atmosphere are minute

particles of vapor and dust that cause a veil-
like appearance called haze. This haze is most apparent
in
distant scenes. Haze is the result of sunlight being
scattered by minute particles of matter that are present
in the air. The amount of haze can vary due to
atmospheric conditions.
A haze filter is any
filter that absorbs atmospherically scattered sunlight.
This includes contrast and correction filters. When
contrast and correction filters are used for haze
penetration, they may be considered special-purpose
filters. Although contrast filters can be used for cutting
haze, these filters affect the gray tone rendering of
colored objects. The contrast and correction filters that
absorb the shorter wavelengths are the most effective. The
recommended contrast and correction filter colors,
in the order of greatest to least effective, for haze
penetration are as follows: l Red l Orange l Yellow l Green
The use of an infrared sensitive black-and-white film
with an infrared filter provides the greatest haze
penetration of all.
3. Skylight Filter - A skylight filter adds warmth to a scene
recorded on
color transparency film by absorbing ultraviolet
radiation. It does this by reducing the bluish
cast prevalent in distant scenes and in scenes photographed
on heavily overcast days or in open shade. A skylight filter
is light pink in color.
4. Polarizing Filters

Polarizing filters look like gray neutral density filters.

However, their effect becomes apparent when you
look at the blue sky through a polarizing filter while
rotating it. As you rotate the filter, the sky appears to
get darker, then lighter.
Polarizing Filter ("Polarizer" or "Polarizing screen") is an
adjustable filter, with an inner ring that screws onto the
lens and an outer ring that can be rotated. Turning the
outer ring reduces or increases the filter’s effectiveness.
The polarizer absorbs glare, reducing or eliminating
reflections and darkening blue skies. It works by
transmitting light that travels in one plane while
absorbing light that travels in opposing planes.

Polarizing filters are used in black-and-white and color

photography for the following reasons:

1. To reduce or eliminate unwanted reflections (glare)

from nonmetallic surfaces, such as glass and water

2. To effect exposure control (similar to ND filters)

3. To reduce the effects of haze

4. To darken the blue-sky image in both black-and-white

and color photography

5. To increase color saturation in a color photograph without

altering the hues of image colors

There are a number of different polarizing filters. However,

there are only two main types: one type fits over the camera
lens, and the other is designed to be used
over a light source. Since they do not affect color,
polarizing filters and screens may be used for both
black-and-white and color photography.
 V. PHOTOGRAPHIC LENS

Lens - A true “lens” is a single piece of glass (or other

transparent substance) having one or more curved surfaces
used in changing the convergence of light rays. What we
commonly call a photographic lens is more accurately and
technically called an “objective,” an optical device
containing a combination of lenses that receive light rays
from an object and form an image on the focal plane.
However, dictionaries have come to accept the usage of the
term “lens” to mean the entire photographic objective itself.
A photographic lens will always be called a lens, even
though it is not a lens, but has a lot of lenses in it. A
camera lens collects and focuses rays of light to form an
image on film.
A camera LENS is actually an objective composed of a number of lenses.
A. Types Of Lenses

1. A convex lens (Positive) is a converging lens which

works much like a concave mirror. This kind of lens is thicker
in the middle and thinner towards the edges, like the lens in
a magnifying glass.

2. A concave lens (Negative) is a diverging lens which

works similar to the convex mirror. This lens is thicker
towards the edges and thin in the middle and are used in
helping correction of nearsightedness. All images produced
by concave lenses are virtual, erect, and reduced.
B. Classification of lens according to its focal length

Focal lengths are usually specified in millimetres (mm), but

older lenses marked in centimetres (cm) and inches are still to
be found. For a given film or sensor size, specified by the
length of the diagonal, a lens may be classified as:

1.Normal Lens - Lens with a focal length approximately

equal to the diagonal of the film format. A scene viewed
through a normal lens appears to have the same perspective
as if it was being viewed “normally” without a lens, just the
way your eye sees it. They work without reduction or
magnification and create images the way we see the scene
with our naked eyes. Most 35 mm cameras' normal lenses
have a focal length of approximately 50 mm.
 A 50 mm lens is considered average, good for
shooting subjects that are 33 to 65 feet (10 to 20 meters)
from the camera. Wide angle lenses have shorter focal
lengths that can capture large panoramic scenes or large
subjects that are relatively close to you.
 2. Wide-angle Lens - A lens
with an angle of view that is
wider than that of a normal
lens, or that of the human
eye. A wide-angle lens has a
focal length which is less than
the diagonal of the film
format. angle of view wider
than 60° and focal length
shorter than normal.

The 24mm lens is a WIDE-ANGLE LENS.

 3. Ultra-wide Angle
Lens - An extra-wide
angle lens. Generally
refers to 35mm camera
lenses with focal lengths
shorter than 24 mm.

A 17 mm lens is considered to be an ULTRA-WIDE

ANGLE LENS.
 4. Quasi-fish-eye Lens –

The Quasi-fish-eye
lens produces an image on
the film that covers the
entire frame, whereas a
True fish-eye lens has its
circular image wholly
within the film frame.

The QUASI-FISH-EYE LENS covers the entire film frame, actually

showing less of the image than a true fish-eye lens.
 5. Fisheye - Describes
an extreme wide-angle
lens that has an angle of
view exceeding 100° -
sometimes more than
180° - and that renders a
scene as highly distorted.

The true fish-eye lens has its image wholly within the film
frame.
6. Telephoto Lens - or long-focus lens: A lens with a
narrow angle of view, a longer-than-normal focal length, the
ability to magnify images, and exhibiting relatively shallow
depth of field.

Telephoto lenses, which can have focal lengths of

hundreds of millimeters, are basically telescopes mounted
to a camera. They make far away subjects seem closer, but
with a limited field of view.

Examples of 35 mm camera telephoto lenses include

85 mm, 400 mm and 600 mm lenses, to name a few.

A distinction is sometimes made between a long-focus

lens and a true telephoto lens: the telephoto lens uses a
telephoto group to be physically shorter than its focal length.
A TELEPHOTO LENS of this super size magnifies
the scene like a telescope.
7. Macro Lens - A lens with the ability to focus from infinity
to extremely closely, allowing it to capture images of tiny
objects in frame-filling, larger-than-life sizes. Sometimes
called a "Close-up lens," although a close-up lens is usually a
lens attachment for close-ups and does not generally have
the ability to focus on infinity.

It has an angle of view narrower than 25° and focal

length longer than normal. These lenses are used for close-
ups, e.g., for images of the same size as the object. They
usually feature a flat field as well, which means that the
subject plane is exactly parallel with the film plane.
A MACROGRAPH shows the subject at actual size or larger.
9. Variable Focus Lens - A zoom lens - one in which
focal length is variable. Elements inside a variable focus lens
shift their positions, enabling the lens to change its focal
length - in effect, providing one lens that has many focal
lengths.

Typical focal lengths and their 35mm format designations:

< 20mm - Super Wide Angle

24mm - 35mm - Wide Angle
50mm - Normal Lens
80mm - 300mm – Tele
> 300mm - Super Tele
28 mm lens 50 mm lens

70 mm lens 210 mm lens

C. Types of Lens According to Degree of Correction

1. Simple meniscus lens – this lens is usually found in

simple or box camera. It is uncorrected lens and therefore
suffers from inherent defects of lenses.

2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – It is a combination of two

achromatic lens with almost the same focal length. This is
corrected from some kinds of lens defects but not on
astigmatism.
A rectilinear lens is a photographic lens that yields
images where straight features, such as the walls of buildings,
appear with straight lines, as opposed to being curved. In
other words, it is a lens with little barrel or pincushion
distortion.
3. Anastigmatic lens (a.k.a. Anastigmat)– a lens
designed to correct astigmatism. A lens which is free from
astigmatism and other types of lens defects. It has the ability
to focus a vertical and horizontal lines at the same time.

4. Achromatic Lens – a lens which is partly corrected for

chromatic aberration.

An achromatic lens or achromat is a lens that is designed

to limit the effects of chromatic and spherical aberration.
Achromatic lenses are corrected to bring two wavelengths
(typically red and blue) into focus in the same plane.
5. Process lens – a super-corrected lens for astigmatism. It
has a better color correction and has the ability to produce the
best definition of image in the photographs.

6. Fixed Focus Lens – a lens use in all fixed focus camera.

Basically, it has a short focal length and greater depth of field.
RED EYE

An image in which a subject’s irises are red instead of

black. The red eye effect is caused by light from a flash
traveling through the iris and illuminating the retina at the
interior back of the eye–– which is red in color due to its
blood vessels –– and the camera capturing that redness on
film.

Red-eye is the phenomenon where people have

glowing red eyes in photographs. This is caused by the close
proximity of the flash (especially built-in flash) to the camera
lens, which causes light from the subject to be reflected
directly back at the camera. When the flash fires, the light
reflects off the blood in the capillaries in the back of the
subject ’s eyes and back into the camera lens.
RED EYE is actually an image of the retina at the inside back of the
eyeball.
People with blue eyes are particularly susceptible to the
red-eye phenomenon because they have less pigment to
absorb the light.
Red Eye Reduction - A feature of some cameras or flash
units that is meant to reduce the effect of red eye by
emitting multiple bursts of light immediately before the
picture is taken. The intended result is a forced reduction in
the size of the subject's iris.

There are a few ways to minimize or eliminate red-eye

in your pictures. Some cameras provide a red-eye reduction
feature that fires a pre-flash, forcing the irises in your
subject ’s eyes to close before you take the picture. The main
problem with this method is that it often forces subjects to
involuntarily close their eyes before the image is taken, and
it doesn’t always completely eliminate the red-eye effect.
 A more effective method is to use an external flash
via the camera ’s hot-shoe mount or, better yet, with an
extension bracket. An external flash radically changes the
angle of the flash, preventing the lens from capturing the
reflection of the blood in the back of
your subject ’s eyes.

While you can also fix the red-eye effect using

Aperture, there is no way to accurately reproduce the
original color of your subject ’s eyes. Preventing the problem
before it occurs is the preferred solution.
 VI. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM

Film (Sensitized material) - A transparent cellulose nitrate or

cellulose acetate composition made in thin, flexible strips
or sheets and coated with a light-sensitive emulsion for
taking photographs.

Black and White

The basic structures of a black and white film are the

following:

1. Top Coating – is an over-coating of a thin layer of hard

gelatin which helps protect the silver halide emulsion from
scratches and abrasions.
2. Emulsion Layer – is the light-sensitive portion of a film or
paper that records the image. composed of silver compounds
which are light sensitive, but for photographic purposes,
halogens such as bromide; chloride; and iodide (used in small
amounts, seldom more than 5% with silver bromide in fast
film emulsion) is added to silver halides, a rare compound that
forms a latent image.

To be useful in photography, the silver halides are suspected

with gelatin; a colloid extracted by boiling animal bones,
hooves, horns, and hides. The gelatin used in films generally
comes from the ears and cheek section of calf hides because
hides of calves and cows contain sulfur compounds, which
aids in the photochemical reaction that creates latent images.
3. Film base – commonly made of cellulose acetate or other
materials such as paper, plastic, or glass which supports the
emulsion layer and is coated with a non-curl anti-halation
backing.

4. Anti-halation backing – a black dye applied on the rear

surface of the film, its function is to absorb light that may
penetrate the emulsion layer, thus, preventing it to reflect
back to the emulsion (halation). The dye is removed during
processing by one of the chemical in the developer. Its
second function is to control the film from curling towards
the emulsion layer.
Color film

Basically, the structure of color film is almost the same as

black and white film except that the emulsion layer
consists of three layers, stacked one on top of the other.

1. Top layer (Blue-sensitive layer) – is sensitive to blue light

only; green and red light passes through it without
exposing the color blind halides.

• Yellow filter – known as Carey Lea silver, suspended in

gelatin is coated between the top and second layer to
absorb any penetrating blue light but freely passes green
and red light.
2.Green-sensitive layer– is orthochromatic, which is
sensitive to blue (which cannot reach it) and green, but not
to red. So the red light passes on to the bottom emulsion
layer.

4.Red-sensitive layer– is panchromatic, sensitive to blue

(which cannot reach it) and red. It is also somewhat
sensitive to green light but to such a slight degree that it is
not important.

Exposure is made simultaneously in the three layers,

each layer responding to one and only one of the additive
color primaries. After exposure, the yellow color of the filter
layer is destroyed during processing of the film.
 Film types according to color sensitivity:

All photographic emulsions are sensitive to the colors of

blue violet and ultraviolet. The film’s sensitivity to other
colors is obtained by adding dyes to the emulsion during
manufacture.

Non-chromatic – sensitive to ultraviolet and blue-violet

colors only. This film may be used when natural rendition is
not important. For example, it is used to copy black and
white originals and to photograph colorless subjects when
extreme contrast is needed.

Orthochromatic – sensitive to blues and greens, but not

to reds. Reds are recorded as dark tones, while greens are
light tones when printed.
Panchromatic – sensitive to all colors and are further
subdivided according to their degree of sensitivity to each
color. This film is most commonly used in investigative
photography because it produces the most natural recording
of colors.

Infrared – sensitive to blues and infrared radiation, which is

beyond the human eye’s sensitivity. It is useful in penetrating
haze because of its longer wavelengths. In investigative
photography, it is useful in laboratory analysis of
questionable documents; in the discovery of old or faded
tattoos or areas where small objects are hidden under the
skin; and in the construction of camera traps.
Film size

110 – for cartridge loading pocket cameras

126 – for older and larger cartridge loading type.

120 – variation of the 2 ¼ inch –wide roll film that was first
introduced for box cameras decade ago, and now used into
professional medium format cameras like the Hasselbald or
Mamiya.

135 – commonly known as the 35mm, so named because the

film is 35mm wide.

220 – the same as the 120’s but yields twice as many exposure.
Film speed

It is the sensitivity of the film emulsion to light, which is

measured and expressed in a numerical rating called ISO
formerly known as ASA/DIN. This means that the higher the
ISO number, the more sensitive the film is to light, and that
pictures can be taken indoors under dim light conditions.

One film may be rated ISO – 100 and another film ISO –
200. This means that the 200 film is twice as fast (twice
more sensitive to light) than the 100 film. Hence, would only
require half the amount of light to produce a satisfactory
negative. Each time the film speed is doubled, it is equal to
one f/stop in exposure. For instance, in the example given, if
ISO – 100 is exposed at f/8, then ISO – 200 would be
exposed at f/11 to produce the same negative quality.
Film speed uses stops, just like shutter and aperture

For example, going from ISO50 to ISO200 buys you

2 stops more light. Slower films are less sensitive and
generally require longer exposures / more light. Faster films
react rapidly, and can be used in low light situations.

lower numbers = slower films = need more light = longer

exposures

higher numbers = faster films = need less light = shorter

exposures
speed rating sensitivity contrast grain

50 ISO/ASA low low low

100 ISO/ASA medium medium medium

200 ISO/ASA medium medium medium

400 ISO/ASA high high high

800 ISO/ASA very high very high very high

 Any film above ISO – 200 can be considered high
speed and anything less is usually slow speed and fine-
grain.

The suggested uses of the following film under varying

conditions are:

ISO – 25 or lowest that condition will permit for best color

and sharpness

ISO – 100 or 200 – for general purpose

ISO – 400 – for dim light or with moving subject

ISO – 1000 and up – for extremely low light conditions

 VII. DARKROOM TECHNIQUES

“Photographic processing” can be defined simply

as a series of chemical changes that accomplish the
following goals:

• Develop the image

• Stop the action of development at a desired point
• Fix the visible image to make it permanent
• Wash away all traces of chemicals used
• Dry the photographic material
Photographic Solutions:

1. Developer

When a photographic emulsion is exposed to light, the

silver halides (usually silver bromide and/or silver chloride) in
the emulsion change chemically. However,
no noticeable change can be seen until the film is
developed. The developer causes the affected silver halides
to change into metallic silver while having no effect on the
unexposed silver halides. The result is that a subject area
reflecting the most light will affect the most silver halides and
will be the darkest part of the image formed in development.
That which is light in the subject is dark in the processed image
and inversely, that which is dark in the subject is light in the
image.
Most all modern developer contain the following
ingredients:

a. Developing agent/reducer – the basic and most

important ingredient in the developing solution is the
reducer, Metol-hydroquinon ( M-Q) is the most
versatile and popular of all developers.

Other agents: Amidol, Glycin, paraphynylene diamine and

pyro.The reducer agent reacts with the exposed silver
halides and develop it into metallic silver which forms the
visible image. However, if used alone, this reducing agent
will have a very little effect or no effect on the silver halides
since it has low rate of oxidation. Therefore, it becomes
necessary that an accelerator must be added to the
developer.
b. Accelerator – Borax, sodium carbonate, Sodium
hydroxide are some of the alkalis used to increase the rate
of oxidation of the reducing agent, softens the gelatin of the
film emulsion, and speeds up solution penetration.
However, a solution containing only a reducer and an
accelerator will oxidize quickly and act too rapidly. Therefore, it
becomes necessary to add a restrainer to the developer to
prevent chemical fog (a veil of silver depositing throughout the
entire emulsion) and rapid deterioration of the solution.

c. Restrainer – the chemical most commonly used as a

restrainer is potassium bromide. Without the restrainer,
most developing solution act too fast and developed
unexposed silver halides near the surface of the emulsion
which causes fog, steaks, and image lacking in contrast.
d. Preservative – all organic developing agents in an alkaline
sate have a strong chemical attraction to oxygen, so,
preservative such as sodium sulfite or sodium bisulfate is
added to prevent excessive oxidation thus prolonging the
useful life of the developing solution and prevents the
formation of colored oxidation products which causes stains.

2. Stop Bath/rinse bath

It has become common practice to rinse film in

running water after development to retard development and to
remove excess chemicals. With prints, it is equally common to
use an acid bath to stop the action of the developer and
prolong the life of the fixer. In either case, the bath is referred
to as a stop bath. Acetic acid diluted with water is the most
commonly used stop bath.
Three (3) General Types of Rinse Bath

a. Water rinse bath - helps retard the action of the

developing agent and remove the excess developer from
the film, thus preventing contamination of the fixing bath. A
water rinse is suitable and sufficient for most negatives,
however, it will dilute the fixer. So, if used, it should be
followed by an acid bath. The same procedure applies
when processing prints.

b. Acid rinse bath – sometimes referred to as a stop bath and

is more effective than a water rinse, as it instantly
neutralizes the action of the developer and stops further
development. It also neutralizes the alkalinity of the
developer and prolongs the life of the fixing bath. To
prepare an acid bath, mix ½ oz. of 28% acetic acid in 32
oz. of water.
c. Hardening rinse bath – use only when it is impossible to
control the temperature of the solutions, particularly the
wash water, or when development is done in high
temperature or under tropical conditions. A typical
hardener rinse bath contain the following: 32 oz. of
water; 1 oz of potassium chrome alum; and 1 oz
sodium bisulfate ( a solution containing potassium
chrome alum is very unstable and becomes exhausted
quickly with or without use).

3. Fixing Bath

The fixing bath is employed to fix or to make the

developed image permanent by removing all the
unaffected silver salt from the emulsion. These silver salts
are still sensitive; and if they are allowed to remain in the
emulsion, light ultimately darkens them and obscure the
image, thus, making the negative useless.
Fixing Bath Ingredients:

a. Fixer or fixing agent. The fixer is sometimes called

“hypo” because the conditioners to shorten processing time
or to preserve
other solutions. The solutions commonly found in
main ingredient of the fixer formula, sodium thiosulfate, is
also known as hyposulfate.

The purpose of the fixer is to convert the silver halides

not changed to metallic silver in the developer into a soluble
form. These soluble salts diffuse out of the emulsion and into
the fixer.
b. Acid or neutralizer. After development, the pores of the
swollen emulsion retains a considerable amount of
developer and if allowed to remain it will continue its action
causing uneven stains in the gelating of the emulsion,
rendering the negative unfit for use. Acetic acid is added
to the fixing bath to neutralize the action of the developer
remaining in the emulsion when the film is immersed in the
fixing bath.

c. Preservatives. Sodium sulfite is added to the fixer as a

preservative to prevent oxidation of the developing agents
that are carried over into the fixing bath by the film;
prevent decomposition of the fixing bath; prevents
discoloration of the solution; and aids in the elimination of
stains.
d. Hardener. During the development, the emulsions become
soft and swollen, frilling and scratching may occur if
processing is continued without hardening the solution.
Potassium alum is the hardening agent used expanded
but firm for the washing process.

4. Wash.

Running water is not actually required but greatly

simplifies the removal of all the chemicals previously
used. The wash step is necessary if you desire a
permanent image without stains. Wash films and papers
with fresh running water for about five minutes.
5. Wetting Agent.

The wetting agent, usually called Photo-

Flo, is a
chemical designed to reduce the surface tension of
water, thus reducing the possibility of water spots
forming on film as it dries. It reduces the overall drying
time of your films and prints — a point to consider
especially on “rush jobs.”

6. Drying.

The final step in processing film is to dry the wet

negative which is done in two phases. First is removal of
the excess water from the surface. Second is drying, either
by evaporation or forced air.
The positive or print

Print - A photographic image printed on paper, generally a

positive image made from a negative. (Also refers to a
photograph of a model that appears in print - in a
newspaper or magazine, for example.)

After the process of producing the negative has been

completed, a positive image is produced from the
negative which is a true representation of the relative
brightness of all parts of the object and is now called
print. A print is ordinarily made on paper that is coated
with a light sensitive emulsion. This emulsion is much the
same as the one which must be used to cover the film.
Basic Layers of Printing Paper
a. Base. Made of paper which must be chemically pure to
insure that it will not interfere with the chemical
processes to which the emulsion is subjected. Available
either in a single or double weight paper.
b. Baryta layer. A gelatin layer containing baryta crystal to
increase the reflectivity of the paper.
c. Emulsion layer. Contain minute silver halides suspended
with gelatin which needs only to reproduce the total range
of negative.
A PRINT is a photograph printed on paper.
Types of Photographic Printing Paper

1. Chloride Papers. Have a slow speed emulsion containing

silver chloride, fine grain and produce deep blacks, and
used for contact printing.

2. Bromide Papers. Have faster emulsion speed than

chloride paper, achieve sensitivity through the use of
bromide halides. Because of the relatively high sensitivity
to light, these emulsions are particularly suitable for
projection printing.

3. Chlorobromide Papers. Contain both silver chloride and

silver bromide halides. Emulsion speed lies between that
of chloride and bromide papers, used for both contact and
projection printing.
4. Variable Contrast Paper. Combines the contrast ranges
in one paper, this versatility is achieved with special
chlorobromide emulsion that produces varying contrast
responses upon exposure to different colored light.

Paper Weight

a. Lightweight (LW) – intended for purposes which involve

folding.
b. Single weight (SW) – use for all ordinary photographic
purposes.
c. Double weight (DW) – generally used for large prints
because they stand up better under rough treatment.
Printing
In Photography, printing is the term used to
describe the process of making positive images from
negatives (and, in some instances, from film positives). The
most familiar example is the print made on a paper base.

Photographic print is made by passing light

through the
negative onto a piece of paper that is coated with a
light-sensitive emulsion very similar to film.
Types of Printing

1. Contact Printing. It is the process of making positive

prints by placing a sheet of printing paper in direct contact
with the negative, emulsion to emulsion.

Contact printing is the quickest, simplest, and most

economical method of producing photographic prints. For
making proof prints and small volume printing, all you need
for a “contact printer” is a sheet of glass, a light source,
and some sort of padding.
 For making contact proof prints and the occasional
contact print job, a glass and a supporting pad are all that
are necessary. “Contact printers,” consisting of a sheet of
glass hinged to a metal frame and a pad assembly, are
generally known as proof printers. If such a device is not
available or is not large enough for the negatives to be
contact printed, a piece of 1/4-inch plate glass and a soft
padding (such as a rubber typewriter pad) can be used.
Quarter-inch plate glass is heavy enough to keep
the negatives and paper flat and in contact during
exposure. The glass must be free of flaws, scratches,
bubbles and dirt.

Contact Print - A print made with the negative in contact

(held tightly against) the photographic paper so that both
negative and print are the same size.
2. Projection printing. Generally refers to enlarging.

It is the process of making positive prints by projecting

the negative image onto photosensitive paper.

The projected image may be enlarged , the same as

the negative image, or reduced in size. When the print
images are larger than the negative images, the process is
called enlarging.

When the print images are smaller than the negative

images, the process is called reducing.
Because
projection printing is usually used to make positive
prints with images larger than the negative, projection
printers are usually referred to as enlargers.

Projection printing differs from contact printing

because the negative is separated from the paper and the
image is projected by a lens onto the sensitized material.

•The negative is placed between an enclosed light source

and a lens.

•The lens receives the light that passed through the

negative and projects the image onto the paper.
•Changing the distance between the lens and the
paper controls the size of the image.

•The image is focused on the paper by adjusting the

distance between the negative and the lens.

•It is possible to enlarge or reduce the size of the

projected image by changing and adjusting these distances.
Advantages of Projection Printing

The main advantage of enlarging over contact printing is

that large prints can be made, but there are several other
important advantages.

The advantages of projection printing are as follows:

1. Cropping (selecting the main area of interest in a

negative) can be done and enlarged to any suitable size.

This gives you the opportunity to eliminate unwanted

and distracting elements from around the point of
interest of the picture.
CROPPING- (1) Removal of parts of an image in order to improve
the image’s composition. Cropping occurs when an area that is
smaller than the entire image frame is printed or reproduced. (2)
Cropping is sometimes also used in reference to a photographer
moving closer to a subject, thereby eliminating (cropping)
unnecessary surrounding elements from the composition.

CROPPING removes portions of an image to improve its composition.

2. Dodging or burning in. This allows you to apply local
exposure control to bring out more detail in the highlight and
shadow areas.

DODGING - Blocking a portion of the light when printing a

photograph so that an area of the print will be made lighter.

BURNING or Burning-in - Also known as "Printing in." In a

darkroom, providing extra exposure to an area of the print to
make it darker, while blocking light from the rest of the print.

3. Local fogging with a small external light, such

as a penlight, to darken selected areas. For
example, to darken the background of a portrait to direct
viewer attention to the face.
4. Special effects. You can change the appearance
of the image by use of diffusers or patterns between
the lens and paper.

5. Image distortion correction or introduction can

be done by tilting the enlarger easel. An easel is the
device used to hold the paper during exposure.

ENLARGERS

In general, all enlargers are similar in design and

operation. They have an enclosed light source, some
method of providing an even distribution of light over the
negative, a negative carrier, a lens, and a means of
adjusting the lens-to-negative and lens-to-paper
distances.
Two types of enlargers:

1. Condenser Enlarger.

It has a set of condensing lenses between the printing light

and the negative. These lenses align and project the light rays
evenly through the negative. Since all features of the
negative are being enlarged, any flaws also will be
enlarged.

2. Diffusion Enlarger The diffusion enlarger has a diffusing

medium (usually a ground glass) between the light source
and the negative to spread the light evenly over the entire
surface of the negative. Light emitted from the
lamp, as well as that reflected from the parabolic
reflector, strikes the diffuser, which, in turn, scatters it
in all directions. Thus, when the light reaches the
negative, it is traveling in a nondirectional pattern.
Condenser enlarger
Diffusion enlarger
Photographic Enlarger
EASEL - A darkroom device used to hold paper flat while
exposing it to light from an enlarger. An easel creates a white
border surrounding a print because its "arms" block light from
striking the print paper's edges. The sliding arms can be adjusted
vertically and horizontally in order to create prints of specific
measurements - e.g. 4" X 6" or 5" X 7" and so on.

An EASEL holds paper flat while exposing it to light from an enlarger.

 VIII. CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

A. Purpose of Crime Scene Photography

1. To record the original scene and related areas.

2. To record the initial appearance of physical evidence.

3. It will provide investigators and others with this

permanent visual record of the scene for later use.

4. Photographs are also used in court trials and hearings.

B. Admissibility of photographic evidence.

1. Three major points of qualification of a photograph in

court.

a. Object pictured must be material or relevant to the

point in issue.
b. The photograph must not appeal to the emotions or
tend to prejudice the court or jury.
c. The photograph must be free from distortion and not
misrepresent the scene or the object it purports to
reproduce.

2. You do not need to be an expert in photography to take

crime scene photographs or testify about them.
C. General Crime Scene Photography

Photographs are one way to record a crime scene.

1. Field notes
2. Photographs
3. Sketches

Five steps in recording the crime scene.

1. Secure the scene

2. Take preliminary notes
3. Take overview or preliminary photographs
4. Make a basic sketch
5. Record each item of evidence
Taking overview or preliminary photographs

1. Purpose:

a. To show the scene exactly as it was when you first

saw it.
(1) If something was moved before you
arrived, don't try to reconstruct the scene as it was.
The photographs should show the scene as you
found it.

2. Major crime photography

a. First discuss the crime, evidence and

photographs needed with other investigators at the
scene
 b. Be careful not to destroy any evidence while
taking the photographs.

c. Outside the scene

(1) Exterior of the building where the crime

occurred and in some cases the whole locale.

(2) Aerial photographs of the scene and the

surrounding area can be useful in some types of
cases.

(3) Original series of photographs should also

show all doors, windows and other means of
entrance or exit.
 d. Inside the scene

(1) Begin with a view of the entrance.

(2) Then photograph the scene as it appears when you
first step into the room.
(3) Next, move around the room to get photographs of all
the walls.
(a) These photographs should also show the positions
of any potential items of evidence.
(4) Include photographs of other rooms connected with
the actual crime scene.

3. Using video to record the crime scene

a. Frequently valuable to show an overview of the scene.

 Photographs to record items of evidence.

1.Take two photographs of each item of evidence.

a. One should be an orientation (midrange) shot to show

how the item is related to its surroundings.
b. The second photograph should be a close-up to bring
out the details of the object itself.

2. Measuring and marking devices.

a. Take two photographs if a marking or measuring device is
used.
(1) One photograph without the device, the other with the
device.
(2) So the defense can't claim that the scene was altered
or that the device was concealing anything important.
D. Rules In Crime Scene Photography

Rule 1 - Do Not Disturb the Scene

This is the cardinal rule of crime scene photography.

Both later investigators and judges need to see the scene,
as it was when the police arrived.
 As far as possible, plan your pictures before you
shoot. Make sure to cover the whole scene before it is
touched or altered in any way. After the scene has been
photographed in its original state, you may shoot a second
series of pictures with minor changes. You can add
measuring scales, remove obstacles blocking the view or do
anything else which will make the scene clearer. If you are
working with a partner, take pictures of him moving objects
or adding them to the scene. This will show the jury exactly
what was done and why.
 Rule 2 - Get a Complete Series of Pictures

You must move around the scene to see everything. So

must the camera. Generally speaking, each important object in
the scene should appear in at least three pictures: an
overview; a mid range shot; a close-up.

The overview (using wide angle lens) should cover the

entire scene to bring out the relationships between the
objects. The mid range (using normal lens: 50mm) shot
shows and important object and its immediate surroundings.
Finally, each close-up (using close-up lens) shows a key detail
clearly.
All of these pictures are important. A close-up alone
does not indicate where the object was located. An overview
alone does not bring out all items sharply enough to permit a
detailed examination.
 Rule 3 - Pay Attention to Camera Angles

Relationships of size and distance may be distorted by

the wrong viewpoint. Examine the scene in the viewfinder.
This shows the scene, as your camera will see it.

Ask yourself questions such as:

Does this picture reveal the true position of the witness to the
crime?
Do the skid marks seem longer or shorter in the viewfinder
than they are in real life?
How large is the lead pipe used as a weapon?

Shoot most pictures with the camera at eye level. This is

the height from which people normally see things and that
makes it easier to judge perspective.
 One practical way to assure complete coverage and to
provide correct perspective is to follow the FOUR CORNER
APPROACH.

Four Corner Approach in Crime Scene Photography

 Rule 4 - Record all Data

You will often want to stress key details in a picture. If

you do that by marking on the print itself, a defense lawyer
may accuse you of altering it. For this reason, it is wise to do
your marking on a transparent overlay that can be removed
to show the untouched print.

Another way to avoid possible objections is to label the

negatives from which your prints were made and take them
with you to Court.

Finally, you may want to support your prints with a

"sketch map" of the crime scene and indicate the camera
position for each shot.
NB: Recommended size of photograph in court is
5” X 7” or 8”X10” or bigger…
E. Points To Be Remembered In Crime Scene
Photography

1) Always take preliminary photographs before the scene is

altered in any way.

2) Take a complete set of pictures (Overall, Mid Range &

Close - up). Shoot from different angles and distances. Film is
cheaper than lost cases.

3) Use fresh film and keep it away from heat.

4) Keep your pictures sharp. Use a tripod if possible. Focus

carefully. Be sure your lens is clean.
5) Avoid back lighting. It creates silhouettes and may cause
flare. If you must shoot toward a light, shade the lens as
best you can.

6) Use side lighting to bring out texture, accident damage,

tool marks and any other irregularities on a surface. Avoid it
when shooting recesses, containers and closets.

7) Front lighting is normally the best in police work. Use it

unless three dimensional details need to be recorded(then
use side lighting).

8) The flash provides portable and easily controlled light. In

sunlit scenes, it fills in the shadows and brings out details
that they might otherwise hide.
9) Aiming your flash at a highly polished surface may cause
"glare". Point the camera/flash at the surface from a 45
degree angle.

10) Cover the flash with a clean white handkerchief for

close subjects to prevent the flash from "burning" the
subject in with overexposure or harsh light.

11) When some important objects are near you and others
are far away, use your flash but expect those objects closer
to you to be overexposed and those further away to be
underexposed. Try taking an extra shot without a flash if
there is some "available" light but you will most likely have
to use a tripod or rest the camera on some solid stationary
object to prevent a blurred or unclear image.
12) Keep all your equipment in good condition and readily
available. It will then give maximum usefulness and
minimum trouble.

F. Basic Rule for Evidence Close-up Photography

As a general rule, always keep the film plane parallel (at a

right angle or 90 degrees) to the plane of the evidence
(Ex. Impressions, tool marks, weapons and the like)
G. Flash Fill in Crime Scene and Evidence Photography

When to Use Flash Fill

In scenes illuminated by bright sunlight there will

usually be dark shadow areas. Detail in the deep shadow areas
will be lost when the exposure is based on the overall
brightness of the scene. With the use of flash fill, the
brightness level in the shadow areas can be raised to the
overall brightness of the scene.
Without flash fill, detail With flash fill, detail in the
in shadows is lost. shadow area is recorded.