P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

1
PREREQUISITE BEFORE THIS
CHAPTER

 Concept of Vectors (especially Unit vector, position

vector, rectangular components of a vector, vector
addition).

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

 Concept of force.
 Concept of Equilibrium.

 NOTE: If you have not studied these topics, don’t

dare to study this chapter on Electrostatics.

2
ELECTROSTATICS
 The word Electrostatics composed of two words:
electro meaning charge and static meaning rest.
Therefore, electrostatic is study of charges at rest.

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

Also, if they move, the speed is steady.

 Electrostatics is the study of electric charges

at rest or charges moving with steady flow.

 It is also sometimes called static electricity.

 In this chapter we are going to study about 3

charges and their properties in details.
 CHARGE
 Let us see one example before introducing the concept of charge.

 Example: Charging by Friction

 Let us take a polythene rod and place one end of it near some pieces
of paper.
 Does anything happen?

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

 Nothing will.

 Rub the rod with a cloth and again place it near some pieces of paper.
 Does the rod affect the paper after being rubbed?
 When the rod is placed near the pieces of paper, some pieces of
paper are attracted by the “rubbed” polythene rod.
 This experiment tells us that the friction produced by rubbing
the rod must have affected the rod in some way.
 We say that the plastic rod has been charged.
 This process to create charge is known as charging by friction.

4
 Charge
5

 An electron is said to has negative charges (arbitrarily

because of historical reasons) and a proton has equal
positive charges.

 SI unit of charge = coulombs = C

 Charge on an electron = – e = – 1.6 × 10 –19
C
 Charge on a proton = e = 1.6 × 10 –19 C

 Please note that negative charge is not less than

positive charge. E.g., you cannot say that -1e < 1e.
Negative and positive sign of charges simply tell that
they are of opposite nature. For historical reasons,
charge on an electron is taken as negative and charge on a
proton is taken as positive. It could have been taken in
opposite manner also. But we follow the historical rule.

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

 CHARGE
 Generally a body has equal number of electrons & protons. Thus a body is neutral.
 When somehow electron transfer takes from one body to another both bodies are said to be
charged.
 Let us take an example to illustrate the idea. Suppose a body A has 7electrons & 7 protons;
another body B has 15 electrons and 15 protons. Clearly, both the bodies are neutral.
 Now, suppose by some process (i.e., by friction or by induction etc.) three electrons from A is
transferred to B.
 Clearly, A will have 3 less electrons and B will have 3 excess electrons.

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

3e
7e 15e 4e 18e
INITIAL FINAL
7p STATE
15p 7p STATE
15p

 It means A has more number of proton (positive charge) than A that of electron (negative charge)
A B has more numberBof electron (negative charge)
and similarly B
than that of proton (positive
charge).
 Therefore, A is said to be positively charged & B is said to be negatively charged.
 The body which gains electrons is said to be negatively charged because it has more
number of electron (negative charge) than that of proton (positive charge).
 The body which loses electrons is said to be positively charged because it has more
number of proton than that of electron.
 Thus, when we say charge it means charge imbalance.

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 Important Properties of
Charges
7

 These are main properties of the charges:

1. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.

2. The electric charges are additive in nature.

It means total charge of a body is the algebraic sum of the charges located at
different points in the body.

3. The charge is quantized.

It means the total charge Q carried by a charged body is an integral multiple of
charge e on an electron.
Therefore, we can write, Q = ne.
where n = an integer = … -2, -1, 0 , 1, 2…

4. The charge of a system is always conserved.

NOTE: We shall study about each of these properties in coming slides.

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR
 Charge Property 1
(Attraction/Repulsion)
8

 Like charges repel each other and unlike

charges attract each other.

 Two positive charges repel each other.

+ +
 Two negative charges repel each other.

- -
 One positive and another negative charge attract
each other.

+ -
P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR
 Charge Property 2
(Additive)
9

 The electric charges are additive in nature.

 It means total charge of a body is the algebraic sum of the
charges located at different points in the body.

+5q
-2q

+7q
 -14q
Let us consider a system having charges +5q, -2q, +7q & -14q.
 Then, net charge on the system is simply their algebraic sum.
 Therefore, net charge
= (+5q)+(-2q)+(+7q)+(-14q)
= -4q.

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

 Charge Property 3
(Quantization)
10

 The charge is quantized. (IMPORTANT)

It means the total charge Q carried by a charged body is an integral multiple
of charge e on an electron.
Therefore, we can write, Q = ne
2e
where n = an integer = …,-3, -2, -1, 0 , 1, 2, 3,…
1e
0 e
-1e
 MEANING OF QUANTIZATION:
-2e
 Quantization is simply step by step. It is not continuous.
 In the case of charges, the step size is charge on an electron. The charge on a
body can be integral multiple of charge on electron (e).
 Therefore, charge on a body can be 2e, -100e, 576e. But charge on a body
can’t be 2.7e, because 2.7 is not an integer.
 Clearly, the least amount of charge on a body will be ± 1e .

 NOTE: Please note that negative charge is not less than positive charge.
E.g., you cannot say that -1e < 1e. Negative and positive sign of
charges simply tell that they are of opposite nature. For historical
reasons, charge on an electron is taken as negative and charge on a proton is
P K BHARTI,
taken as positive. It could have IIT KHARAGPUR
been taken in opposite manner also. But we
follow the historical rule.
 MORE ON QUANTIZATION
11

 The charge on any body is always an integral multiple of e and can be increased or decreased also
in steps of e, i.e., charge is quantized.
 The step size e is, however, very small because at the macroscopic level, we deal with charges of a
few μC. At this scale the fact that charge of a body can increase or decrease in units of e is not
visible. The grainy nature of the charge is lost and it appears to be continuous.
 This situation can be compared with the geometrical concepts of points and lines. A dotted line
viewed from a distance appears continuous to us but is not continuous in reality. As many points
very close to each other normally give an impression of a continuous line, many small charges taken
together appear as a continuous charge distribution.
 At the macroscopic level, one deals with charges that are enormous compared to the magnitude of
charge e. Since e = 1.6 × 10–19 C, a charge of magnitude, say 1 μC, contains something like 1013
times the electronic charge. At this scale, the fact that charge can increase or decrease only in units
of e is not very different from saying that charge can take continuous values. Thus, at the
macroscopic level, the quantisation of charge has no practical consequence and can be ignored.

 NCERT QUESTION:
1.4 (a) Explain the meaning of the statement ‘electric charge of a body is quantised’.
(b) Why can one ignore quantisation of electric charge when dealing with macroscopic
i.e.,
large scale charges?
 I think you can answer it yourself.

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

EXAMPLE 1
 Find the number of electrons in 1C?

 SOLUTION:
From quantisation of charge, we know that Q = ne

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

Here, Q = 1C
And, e = magnitude charge on an electron
 e = 1.6 × 10 –19 C.
We have to find n = number of electrons.

Therefore, using eqn.

Q = ne
 1C = n × 1.6 × 10 –19 C
 n = 1 / (1.6 × 10 –19)
 n = 6.25 × 1018 (a large number!)

 Therefore, number of electrons in 1C of charge = 6.25 × 1018 ,

which is really a large number ! 12
EXERCISE ON QUANTISATION
 Try to solve this problem. This problem is from NCERT book (Q. #
1.11).

 Q. A polythene piece rubbed with wool is found to have a negative

charge of 3 × 10–7 C.

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

(a) Estimate the number of electrons transferred (from which to
which?)
(b) Is there a transfer of mass from wool to polythene?

 ANSWERS:
(a) 2 × 1012 , from wool to polythene. (Why?)
(b) Yes, because each electron has mass of 9.1 × 10–31 kg
(total mass = 2 × 10–18 kg which is negligible).

NOTE: If you are not able to solve this problem u can mail me.
Hint for part (b):
total mass transferred = number of electron × mass on an electron
13
 Charge Property 4
(Conservation)
14

 The charge of a system is always conserved.

 It means charge of a system can neither be created nor be
destroyed.

–
+ A – – B – – –
+
+
– -3e –
+6e – –9e –
+ + – –
+ –
+ –

–
 Suppose there are two bodies A & B having charges +6e and –
9e respectively. When they brought in contact charge transfer
takes place and net charge
– becomes +6e –9e = –3e.
 If we consider both bodies A & B as one system, there is no net
charge creation. Actually one body loses some charge and other
gains. So, as a whole charge is conserved.
 NOTE: These pictures are just illustration to understand the
topic. Practically, charge distribution will be different from what
shown in the figure because of induction.
P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR
 COULOMB’S LAW
 Two stationary point charges attract or repel each other with a force which is
directly proportional to the product of magnitude of charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

The force is attractive when the charges are unlike and repulsive when the charges are
like. This force always acts along the line joining the two charges.

Suppose two point charges q1 & q2 are located at a distance r apart. Then from
Coulomb’s law, the force F acting on these two point charges is
F ∝ |q1q2| …(1) q2
F ∝ 1/r2 …(2)
Combining (1) & (2)]
r
F ∝ |q1q2|/r2
|q q |
F = k1 2
r2
[Coulomb’s Law] q1

 where k is the constant of proportionality which depends on medium.

 If the two charges are in vacuum, k is given by

1

k=

4π
 ε εο
where, ο is known as absolute permittivity of vacuum (free space).
P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR 15
 Important Point About
Coulomb’s Law
You must be careful of the following facts about Coulomb’s Law:
1. It is valid only for point charges.
We can also use Coulomb’s law for large charges when distance
between them is sufficiently large. The reason is that, when the distance
between two charges is very large they seems to be point charges.
For example, stars seem very small to us as they are very far away
although they may be larger than Earth.

2. The force is attractive when the charges are unlike and repulsive
when the charges are like.

3. This force always acts along the line joining the two charges. For
this reason this force is also known as central force.
As this force depends on the distance between two charges,
therefore it is also an example of action at a distance force.

16 P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

 Important Point About Coulomb’s Law
4. Coulomb Force on two charges depends upon medium.
 Coulomb force between two charges at a certain distance is the largest when
they are in vacuum.
 The constant k in Coulomb’s law depend upon this medium.
 When the two charges are placed in vacuum, k is given by
k = 1/4π ε ο where ε ο (read as “epsilon not”) is known as absolute
permittivity of vacuum.
 In SI units, value of this constant is given by
ε ο = 8.854 × 10 –12
C2N –1
m –2

1
= 9 × 10 9 N m2 C–2

4π ε forο any medium we can write k =1/4π ε (ε absolute permittivity of the

In general,
medium) instead of 1/ 4π ε ο . Therefore Coulomb’s Law for any medium is given by:

F = 1 |q1q2| Coulomb’s law when two point charges

are in a medium having absolute permittivity ε
r2
4π ε
 Clearly, when the medium is vacuum, ε becomes ε ο . Therefore, ε = ε ο for vacuum.
 Also, higher the absolute permittivity of a medium lower will be the Coulomb’s force.
 Absolute permittivity of vacuum is least and hence Coulombs force will be largest when the
two charges at particular distance are placed in vacuum.
P K εBHARTI,
17 Hence, ≥ ε oIIT KHARAGPUR
 Relation between ε & ε ο
18

 Relation between absolute permittivity of a medium (ε )and absolute

permittivity of vacuum (ε ο ).

ε =ε ο ε r

where ε r is known as relative permittivity of the medium with respect

to the vacuum. It is also known as dielectric constant of the medium.

 ε r ≥ 1
 ε r = 1 for vacuum as ε = ε ο for vacuum.

 NOTE: For air we use ε ≈ ε ο as ε r for air is close to 1.

Therefore, when two point
|q1q charges are held in air or in vacuum, electrostatic
2|


F =
force is given by: 1
r2
4π ε ο
1
= 9 × 10 9 N m2 C–2
Also P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR
4π ε
 Permittivity Constant
19

 Physical significance of permittivity.

 Permittivity is a word which resembles permit meaning permission. In the

loose sense we can say that permittivity of medium the permission given by a
medium for interaction of charges. This permission is highest for the case of
vacuum.
 Higher permittivity constant (either relative or absolute permittivity constant)
means less permission to interact.

 It means electrostatic force magnitude between two charges

separated by a particular distance will be less in a medium of high
permittivity constant.

 E.g., when two charges left in air and water with the same separation,
electrostatic force in the case of air will be higher because air has less
permittivity constant.

 NOTE: Absolute permittivity means actual value permittivity of medium and

relative permittivity (dielectric constant) means permittivity wrt to vacuum
absolute permittivity.
P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR
EXAMPLE 2
 Two charged particles q1 and q2 are held at two points in the air at points A & B such that
AB = 2m. Find the electrostatic force (with direction) acting on charges A and B for the
cases:
B
a). q1 = 2 × 10 –6 C & q2 = 2 × 10 –6 C
q2
b). q1 = – 2 × 10 –6
C & q2 = – 2 × 10 –6
C
c). q1 = 2 × 10 –6
C & q2 = – 2 × 10 –6
C
A 2m

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

 SOLUTION: q1
 a). q1 = 2 × 10 –6
C & q2 = 2 × 10 –6
C
 Since both charges q1 and q2 are positive in nature therefore, electrostatic force on each
other will be repulsive in nature.
Now, from Coulomb’s Law, electrostatic force between charges q1 and q2 when placed in
air will be given by:
|q1q2| F
1
F =
r2 B
4π ε ο q2
| (2 × 10 –6
) × (2 × 10 –6
)|
 F = 9 × 10 9

22
 F = 9 × 10 –3
N A
q1
Therefore, force on charge q1 = 9 × 10 –3
N (along BA)
And, force on charge q2 = 9 × 10 –3
N (along AB) F 20

NOTE: Along AB means, in a direction from A to B.

EXAMPLE 2 CONTINUED
 b). q1 = – 2 × 10 –6
C & q2 = – 2 × 10 –6
C

 Since both charges q1 and q2 are negative in nature therefore,

electrostatic force on each other will be repulsive in nature.
Now, from Coulomb’s Law, electrostatic force between charges q1 and q2

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

when placed in air will be given by:

F
1 |q1q2| B
F = q2
r2
4π ε ο
| (– 2 × 10 –6
) × (– 2 × 10 –6
)|
 F = 9 × 10 9 A
22 q1
F
 F = 9 × 10 –3
N

Therefore, force on charge q1 = 9 × 10 –3

N (along BA)
And, force on charge q2 = 9 × 10 –3
N (along AB)
21

NOTE: Along AB means, in a direction from A to B.

EXAMPLE 2 CONTINUED
 c). q1 = – 2 × 10 –6
C & q2 = 2 × 10 –6
C

Since charges q1 is negative & charge q2 is positive, meaning both charges are
opposite in nature therefore, electrostatic force on each other will be
attractive in nature.

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

Now, from Coulomb’s Law, electrostatic force between charges q1 and q2 when
placed in air will be given by: B
q2
1 |q1q2| F
F =
r2
4π ε ο F
| (– 2 × 10 –6
) × (2 × 10 –6
)| A
 F = 9 × 10 9

22
 F = 9 × 10 –3
N q1

Therefore, force on charge q1 = 9 × 10 –3 N (along AB)

And, force on charge q2 = 9 × 10 –3 N (along BA)

22
EXAMPLE 3
 Repeat Example 2 for the case when two charges in water. Water has
a dielectric constant (relative permittivity wrt vacuum) ε r = 80.

 Solve yourself.
 HINT: Electrostatic force in a medium of absolute permittivity ε is given by

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

F = 1 |q1q2|
 Also ε = ε ο ε r
r2
 Therefore, Electrostatic4π ε a medium of dielectric constant (or relative
force in
permittivity) ε r is given by

F = 1 |q1q2|
r2
 Solution process is same as that of Example 2, only formula is different.
4π ε ο
 ANSWERS:
a). 1.125 × 10 –4
N (alongε BA)
r , 1.125 × 10 –4
N (along AB) ,
b). 1.125 × 10 –4
N (along BA) , 1.125 × 10 –4
N (along AB) ,
c). 1.125 × 10 –4
N (along AB) , 1.125 × 10 –4
N (along BA) ,
23
 Coulomb’s Law in vector form
 Since force is a vector, it is better to write Coulomb’s law in the vector notation.
 Let the position vectors of charges q1 and q2 be r1 and r2 respectively as shown in figure.
 We denote force on q1 due to q2 by F12 and force on q2 due to q1 by F21 .
 The two point charges q1 and q2 have been numbered 1 and 2 for convenience and the vector
leading from 1 to 2 is denoted by vector r21 :
r21 = r2 – r1
 In the same way, the vector leading from 2 to 1 is denoted by r12 :
r12 = r1 – r2 = – r21
 The magnitude of the vectors r21 and r12 is denoted by r21 and r12 , respectively (r12 = r21 which
is also the distance between two charges).
 The direction of a vector is specified by a unit vector along the vector. To denote the direction
from 1 to 2 & from 2 to 1, we define the unit vectors:

 Coulomb’s law in vector form can be written as

(A) Force on q1 due to q2

& (B) Force on q2 due to q1

 Since, r21 = – r12, therefore, F21 = – F12. It follows straight from the fact that Coulomb’s law
is consistent with Newton’s third law.

24 P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

 IMPORTANT POINT ABOUT COULOMB’S LAW IN VECTOR
FORM

 Please see last slide.

 Equation (A) & (B) are valid for any sign of q1 and q2
whether positive or negative.
 If q1 and q2 are of the same sign either both positive or
both negative), meaning q1q2 > 0, then

It means F21 is along r21, which denotes repulsion, as it should be for like
charges.
 If q1 and q2 are of opposite signs, meaning q1q2 < 0, then

It means, F21 is along – r21 ( which is same as r12), which denotes

attraction, as expected for unlike charges.
 Thus, we do not have to write separate equations for the cases of like and
unlike charges. Equation (A) & (B) take care of both cases correctly .

25 P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

 Principal of Superposition
 Suppose there are n charged particles q1 , q2 , … , qn are in a medium.
 What is the total electrostatic force acting on particle q1 due to rest of the
particles?
 Just find the individual Coulomb forces acting on particle q1 due to rest of
the charges. Let the magnitude of these forces be F12 , F13 , … F1n
respectively.
Here F1n = attractive or repulsive Coulomb force on particle 1 because of
the nth particle.
NOTE: Force F1n is a vector whose direction is along the line joining q1 & q2
and pointing towards or away from charge q1 .
Similar notation for others. F1,net
.
 Therefore net electrostatic force F1,net acting on particle 1 due to rest of the
q3
.
particles is given by vector sum of FF12 1,3 F13 , … F1n . This is known as
q2
Principle of Superposition.
 F
1,net = F 12 + F 13
F12
+ .
… + F1n q1 F1n

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

.q
n
26
 Principal of Superposition
The force on any charge due to a number of other
charges is the vector sum of all the forces on that
charge due to the other charges, taken one at a time.
The individual forces are unaffected due to the presence
of other charges.
This is termed as the principle of superposition.
F1,net = F12 + F13 + … + F1n

 Let us see an example on Superposition

F1,net Principle to illustrate the
idea in the next slide. . q3
. q2
F 13

F12 . q1 F1n

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

.q n
27
 EXAMPLE 4
 Four point charges qA = 2 μC, qB = –5 μC, qC = 2 μC, and qD = –5 μC are located at the corners
of a square ABCD of side 10 cm. What is the force on a charge of 1 μC placed at the centre of
the square? (This question is taken from NCERT book; qs. no. 1.6)
 SOLUTION:
 We have to find out net force on charge qo = 1 μC placed at centre O.
 Clearly, we have to use the principle of superposition. It means, we have to find out individual
forces on qo from rest of charges and then we have to add them vectorially.
 Clearly, distance of charge qo from any other charge
Aq = 2 μC
B

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

A
= half the length of diagonal
qB = –5 μC
= ½ (√2 side) = (1/√2) (10cm) = (0.1/√2) m.
 FORCE ON qo = 1 μC DUE TO CHARGE
qA = 2 μC.
 Since both charges qo and qA are positive in nature
qo = 1 μC
therefore, electrostatic force FOA on charge qo due to qA O
will be repulsive in nature, i.e. FOA is towards OC.
(because qA will repel qo , which is along OC) FOA
 Now, from Coulomb’s Law, electrostatic force between
charges qo and qA when placed in air will be given by: qC = 2 μC
qD= –5 μC
D C
1 |qoqA|
FOA =
r2
4π ε ο | (1 × 10 –6
) × ( 2 × 10 –6
)|
 FOA = 9 × 10 ×
9
28
(0.1/√2) 2

 FOA = 3.6 N (along OC)

 EXAMPLE 4 CONTINUED
 FORCE ON qo = 1 μC DUE TO CHARGE qB = – 5μC.

 Since charges qo and qB are opposite in nature therefore, electrostatic force FOB on
charge qo due to qB will be attractive in nature, i.e. FOB is towards OB. (Because
charge qB will attract charge qo , therefore FOB is towards OB)

A qA = 2 μC
B

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

 Now, from Coulomb’s Law, electrostatic force qB = –5 μC
between charges qo and qB when placed in air
will be :
FOB
qo = 1 μC
1 |qoqB| O
FOB =
r2
4π ε ο

|(1 × 10 –6
) × (– 5 × 10 –6
)| qC = 2 μC
 FOB = 9 × 10 9
× qD= –5 μC
(0.1/√2) 2 D C
 FOB = 9 N (along OB)

** NOTE: 1 μC = 1 × 10 –6
C 29
 EXAMPLE 4 CONTINUED
 FORCE ON qo = 1 μC DUE TO CHARGE qC = 2μC.

 Since both charges qo and qC are positive in nature therefore, electrostatic

force FOC on charge qo due to qB will be repulsive in nature, i.e. FOC is towards
OA. (Because charge qC will repel charge qo , therefore FOC is towards OA)
A qA = 2 μC
B

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

qB = –5 μC
 Now, from Coulomb’s Law, electrostatic force
between charges qo and qC when placed in air FOC
will be :
qo = 1 μC
1 |qoqC| O
FOC =
r2
4π ε ο

|(1 × 10 –6
) × (2× 10 –6
)| qC = 2 μC
 FOC = 9 × 10 9
× qD= –5 μC
(0.1/√2) 2 D C

 FOC = 3.6 N (along OA)

30
 EXAMPLE 4 CONTINUED
 FORCE ON qo = 1 μC DUE TO CHARGE qD = – 5μC.

 Since charges qo and qD are opposite in nature therefore, electrostatic force

FOD on charge qo due to qD will be attractive in nature, i.e. FOD is towards OD.
(Because charge qD will attract charge qo , therefore FOD is towards OD)
A qA = 2 μC
B

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

qB = –5 μC
 Now, from Coulomb’s Law, electrostatic force
between charges qo and qD when placed in air
will be :
qo = 1 μC
1 |qoqD| O
FOD =
r2
4π ε FOD
ο

|(1 × 10 –6
) × (– 5 × 10 –6
)| qC = 2 μC
 FOD = 9 × 10 9
× qD= –5 μC
(0.1/√2) 2 D C

 FOD = 9 N (along OD)

31
 EXAMPLE 4 CONTINUED
 NET FORCE ON qo = 1 μC

 We have to use vector sum to find out the net force on charge qo.
 We shall use component method to find the net force here. (NOTE: You can use
any method for vector sum. For this problem component method is easier.)
A qA = 2 μC
B

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

qB = –5 μC
 Net force component along AC
= FOA – FOC = 3.6N – 3.6 N = 0 FOC
FOB
qo = 1 μC
 Net force component along AC = 0. O

 Net force component along BD FOD FOA

= FOD – FOB = 9N – 9N = 0 qC = 2 μC
qD= –5 μC
D C
 Net force component along BD = 0.

 Since, both components of net force = 0. 32

 Therefore, net force on charge qo = 0. (ANS)
 Coulomb’s Law & Newton’s Universal Law
of Gravitation

33
 We are going to study about similarities and dissimilarities
between Coulomb’s Law and Newton’s Universal Law of
Gravitation.

SIMILARITIES:
1. Coulomb’s Law is F = kq1q2/r2 and Universal Law of gravitation
is given by F = Gm1m2/r2. Clearly, both laws has a factor r2
in the denominator which is also known as inverse square of
distance.
Thus, both laws follow “inverse square rule”.
2. Both kind of forces always act along the line joining the two
particles. Hence, both laws give “central forces.”
3. Both laws are examples of “action at a distance force”.
4. Both laws follow “Principle
P K BHARTI, of Superposition” to find the
IIT KHARAGPUR
net force on a particle due to rest of the particles.
 Coulomb’s Law & Newton’s Universal Law
of Gravitation

34

 DISSIMILARITIES:

1. Coulomb’s Law force can be attractive as well as

repulsive, whereas Universal Law of gravitational
force is always attractive.

2. Electrostatic force depends upon the medium

whereas gravitational force is independent of
medium.

3. Electrostatic force is a strong force whereas

gravitational force is a weak force.

4. Electrostatic force is generally relevant at local

scale whereas gravitational force is relevant for large
P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR
scale (like planets etc.).
PROBLEMS ON EQUILIBRIUM
As we know from class XIth Mechanics, equilibrium
means there is no net force and/or torque. (See
chapter on Equilibrium for more detail).

In Coulomb’s law, we are generally concerned

with force equilibrium; meaning net force on
any part of the system is zero.

We will use component method and Lami’s

Theorem (for three coplanar forces) for equilibrium.
See next slide.

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR 35

 Lami’s Theorem
 When three coplanar forces A, B and C act on a
particle such that particle remains in equilibrium,
then, Lami’s Theorem states that:

A B C
A
sinα = sinβ sinγ
= β
 Where γ
A, B and C are the magnitude
α
of forces A, B and C respectively. C B
 α = angle opposite to force A
 β = angle opposite to force B
 γ = angle opposite to force C

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR 36

 EXAMPLE 5
 A particle A having a charge of 5 × 10–7 C is fixed in a vertical wall. A second
particle B of mass 100g and having equal charge is suspended by a silk thread of
length 30cm from the wall. The point of suspension is 30cm above the particle A.
Find the angle of the thread with the vertical when it stays in equilibrium.
 SOLUTION:
 Let us first draw the forces acting on particle B in equilibrium condition.
 Forces are:

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

Weight mg downward O
Tension T along the thread
Electrostatic force of repulsion F from particle θ
30
A on B along AB. cm T F
90O + θ/2
30cm B
 Let us consider the angle between thread and
wall in equilibrium condition be θ. 90 – θ/2
O
90O – θ/2
 From figure angle between mg and OA produced / 2 θ
is also θ. (Corresponding angles) θ
O
–
A 90
 As length of string OB= 30cm = OA.
 Therefore, Δ OAB is an isosceles triangle.
mg
 Hence, ∠ OAB = ∠ OBA = 90O – θ/2 (From class VIth Geometry )
 Thus, we can write all angles immediately as shown using simple geometry. 37
 EXAMPLE 5 CONTINUED
 Before using Lami’s Theorem, let us first find out the magnitude of
electrostatic force F. But, we don’t know distance AB between two charges.
 To find AB we have to use Sine Rule from Trigonometry.

AB 0.3m AB
OA O – θ/2) = sinθ  =

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

sin(90 cos(θ/2) 2sin(θ/2)cos(θ /2)
 AB = 0.6 sin (θ /2)

 Therefore, electrostatic force

1 |qAqB| |(5 × 10 –7 ) × ( 5 × 10 –7
)|
F =  F = 9 × 10 9
×
AB2 (0.6 sin (θ /2)
4π ε ο 2

6.25 × 10 –3

 F = …(1)
sin 2 (θ /2)

38
 Now, we can use Lami’s Theorem.
 EXAMPLE 5 CONTINUED
 From Lami’s Theorem, we have
mg T
F
=
=sin[(90 – θ/2) + (90 – sin(90 + sin[θ+ (90O –
O O O

θ/2)] F mg θ/2) θ/2)]

T
= =
sin(180O – θ) cosθ/2 sin(90O + θ/2)

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

O
 As we don’t know T, we will use only first
two terms of this eqn. Thus, we
θ have
30
cm T F
F mg 90 O +
θ/2
= 30cm
sin(180O – θ) cosθ/2 B
90 – θ/2
O
90O – θ/2
F mg
= / 2 θ
sinθ cosθ/2 –
θ
O

6.25 × 10 –3
A 90
0.1 ×
=
9.8 cosθ/2
sin 2 (θ /2) sinθ mg
[Using (1) & m = 100g = 0.1 kg]
 sin 3 (θ /2) = 0.0032  sin (θ /2) = 0.15  θ /2 = 8.5O  θ = 17O . 39

 Hence, angle of thread with vertical = 17O. [Ans]

 Example 6 (GOOD
ONE)
 Two particles having charges q & 2q are respectively are placed on a frictionless table
with a separation d. A third particle C is to be clamped on the table in such a way that
the particles A & B remain at rest on the table under the electrical forces. What
should be the charge on C and where should it be located.
 SOLUTION:
 As particles A & B remains at rest, no net force acts on the system of charges A, B & C.
 Given, charge on particle A, qA = q & charge on particle B, qB = 2q.

 Let the charge particle C be qC.

 As the net force on C should be equal to zero, the force due to A & B on C must be equal &
opposite in direction. Hence, the particle C should be placed on the line AB.
 [NOTE: If charge C is placed somewhere different place from line AB, net force cannot be zero, as
the force due to A & B on C will not be in opposite direction there. Just draw a FBD, assuming
charge on C to be of same nature as that of A & B as shown in the figure] .
 Now, we can place charge C on line AB at three different
places. First is towards left of A; 2nd towards right of B & 3rd
between A & B. FCB C FCA
 If C is placed towards Left of A:
 In this case repulsive forces on C because of
A & B will F F leftwards.
be towards C
CA CB
 Therefore, net force cannot be zero when charge C is place towards left of A.

A B

40 P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

 Continued
 If C is placed towards right of A:
 In this case repulsive forces on C because of A & B will be towards rightwards.
 Therefore, net force cannot be zero when charge C is place towards right of A.

FCB FCA FCA FCB

A C B C
x d–x
 If C is placed between A & B:
d
 In this case repulsive force on C because of A will be towards right & because of B will be
towards left.
 Therefore, net force can be zero when charge C is placed between A & B.
 One more thing, as the charge on B is larger than that of A, charge C should be placed
nearer to that of A.
 Suppose AB = x, then BC = d – x.
 Now, for equilibrium FCB – FCA = 0  FCA = FCB

 

1 |q qA| √2 x = ± 1(d –|q q| qC (q) qC (2q)

 2 x2 = (d –x)C2
=
x)C B x = d/(1+ √2 ) or d /(1 – √2) = 2
AC 2
BC 2 x 2
(d –x)
41 4π P εK οBHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR
4π ε ο
 Example 6 Continued
 Therefore, x = d/(1+ √2 ) or d /(1 – √2)
 Clearly, d /(1 – √2) < 0, because (√2= 1.414) >1
 Therefore, x = d/(1+ √2 ).
 Rationalizing the denominator we have, x = (√2 – 1) d.
 Therefore, charge C should be located at a distance (√2 – 1)d from
charge A in between A & B.

 FINDING CHARGE ON C:
 Till now we are assuming charge on C to be same nature as that of A & B.
 Let us check, whether this assumption is correct! 
 The basic idea is that if the system is equilibrium, there will be no net force
acting on any of the particles in the system.
FAB FAC FAC
 Let us see forces on charge A.
 If C is same nature of that of A & C
AB then, force B repulsive
on A from B & C will be
in & hence, these forces will act towards left. Thus, net force on A cannot be
zero when C is of same nature to that of A & B.
 Therefore, C must be of opposite nature to that of A & B.
 For the case when C is of opposite nature to that of A & B, force FAB on A from
B will be towards left (repulsive) and force FAC on A from C will be towards right
(attractive).
P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR
42 Thus, net force on A can be zero for this case.
 Example 6 Continued
FAB FAC

A C B
x
d
Now, for equilibrium FAC – FAB = 0  FAC = FAB

1 |qCqA| 1 |qAqB| |qC .q | |q. 2q |

 =  = 2
AC2 AB2 x2 d
4π ε ο 4π ε ο
 qC = – 2q x2 / d2
[ We have taken value of qC to be – ve to that of q, because it is opposite in
nature to that of q]
 qC = – 2q {(√2 – 1) d }2 / d2 = – q (6 – 4√2 ).

 Therefore, charge on C = – q (6 – 4√2 ).

 And, position of C = between q & 2q at a distance of (√2 – 1) d
from q.

43 P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

 Exercise
After previous example please solve this
example from H C VERMA:

Page No.: 114, Example 2

44 P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

 EXAMPLE 7
 Two particles A & B, each carrying charge Q, are held fixed with a
separation d between them. A particle C having mass m and charge q is
kept at the middle point of line AB.
 (a). If C is displaced through a distance x perpendicular to AB, what would
be the electric force experienced by it.
 (b). Assuming x<<d, show that this force is proportional to x.
 (c). Under what conditions will the particle C execute simple harmonic

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

motion if it is released after such a small displacement? Find the time
period of the oscillations if these conditions are satisfied.
 NOTE: You can leave part (C) of this problem if you have not studied SHM
in XIth.

 SOLUTION:
 The situation is shown in figure assuming FCB FCA
all charges of same nature. √(
) x 2+
2 /4 C q d2
 All dimensions are shown in figure. 2+
d /4
x x )
√(
 Now, using Coulomb’s Law Q
1 |qCqA| Q
FCA = A B
AC 2
d/2 45
4π ε ο 1 |qQ|
d
 FCA = {√(x 2+
d /4)}
2

4π ε2
 EXAMPLE 7 CONTINUED
1 |qQ|
 FCA = (x2 + d2 /4) [Along AC] …(1)
 Similarly, 4π ε ο
1 |qQ|
FCB = (x2 + d2 /4) [Along BC] …
Clearly, FCA4π= ε FοCB

(2) (Magnitudes equal).
 Also, these forces are symmetric about perpendicular bisector of line AB.

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

 Therefore, to find net force on C, it will be better to use component method.
 For this, let us assume, ∠ CAB = ∠ CQB = θ. (Why these two angles are equal?).
 Now, we break these forces into
 horizontal & vertical components.
 Since, FCA = FCB FCB sin θ FCA sin θ
 Therefore, FCA cosθ = FCB cosθ. FCB FCA
 Hence, horizontal component of θ
F cos θ θ FCA cos θ
 forces cancel out. CB √(
) x 2+
 Therefore, net force F on C 2 /4 C q d2
2+
d /4
F = FCA sinθ + FCB sinθ = 2 FCA sinθ x x )
√(


 Also, sin = p/h = x/√(x2 + d2 /4) … θ θ Q

Q
A B
 Hence, F = 2 FCA sinθ d/2 46
1 |qQ|x d
F = (x2 + d2 /4) 3/2 [using (1) & (3)]
EXAMPLE 7 CONTINUED
 Therefore, net force F on C is

1 |qQ|x
F = (x2 + d2 /4) 3/2 [Along perpendicular bisector of AB]
2π ε ο
…(4)

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

 (b)
 For the case, when x << d (meaning x is very smaller than d), then we can
write (x2 +d2 /4) ≈ d2 /4 = (d/2)2

 Hence, (x2 +d2 /4) 3/2 ≈ {(d/2)2}3/2 = d3/8. …(5)

 Therefore, force on C
1 |qQ|x
F = (x2 + d2 /4) 3/2 [Along perpendicular bisector of AB]
2π ε ο
4 |qQ|x
F ≈ d3 [Along perpendicular bisector of AB]

π ε …(6)
ο 47
 Clearly, F is directly proportional to x for x<<d. {PROVED}
EXAMPLE 7 CONTINUED
 (c).
 We know that motion is motion will be SHM if F α – x.
 From part (b) we have seen that F α x when x<<d.
 Clearly, F α – x when force direction is opposite to what we have shown,
which will happen only when charge on C is opposite nature to that of A &

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

B.
 Therefore, required conditions of SHM are:
 x<<d & q & Q are of opposite nature.

 When the SHM conditions are satisfied we can write from (6)
|qQ|
F = – 4
x d3
π ε ο
[Minus sign for SHM]
|qQ|
ma = – 4 x
d3 [Because F = ma]
π ε ο

|qQ| 48
a = – 4 x = – w2 x
md3
π ε ο
 EXAMPLE 7 CONTINUED

 Therefore,
|qQ|
w 2
= 4

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

md3
π ε ο 1/2
|qQ|
w = 1
md3
π ε ο

 Hence, time period

 T = 2 p/ w
1/2
mπ 3
ε ο d3
T =
|qQ|
[Ans] 49
FINAL EXERCISE
 For CBSE:
 NCERT: Chapter 1:

Qs. No. 1.1 to 1.6, 1.11 to 1.13.

P K BHARTI, IIT KHARAGPUR

 If you have any problem in these question, just
mail me.

 From H C VERMA:
 Page No. 114 : Examples 1 to 6, 9 & 10.

 Page No. 121: Exercises 1 to 33.

50